Temple Illuminatus2024-03-28T14:21:29ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkinshttps://storage.ning.com/topology/rest/1.0/file/get/66635186?profile=RESIZE_48X48&width=48&height=48&crop=1%3A1https://templeilluminatus.ning.com/forum/topic/listForContributor?groupUrl=new-sciences-and-free-energy&user=13zqiuzcw5mo3&feed=yes&xn_auth=noUltrasound reveals trees’ drought-survival secretstag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2023-04-25:6363372:Topic:36333802023-04-25T13:09:53.992ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<div class="header-default__content___F5-Yn"><div class="header-default__title-wrapper___kUof-"><h1 class="header-default__title___ychM4"><img alt="A photo of a trees in a forest taken from the ground and looking up towards the sky." src="https://www.sciencenews.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/040423_kb_treeultrasound_feat-1030x580.jpg"></img></h1>
<div class="single__byline-container___gBoqt"><div class="single__byline-wrapper___fuwNn"><div class="byline__wrapper___hSvwC"><div class="byline-inner"><p class="byline__authors___a2txN">By<span> </span><span class="byline author vcard"><a class="byline-link url fn n" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/author/katherine-bourzac">Katherine…</a></span></p>
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<div class="header-default__content___F5-Yn"><div class="header-default__title-wrapper___kUof-"><h1 class="header-default__title___ychM4"><img src="https://www.sciencenews.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/040423_kb_treeultrasound_feat-1030x580.jpg" alt="A photo of a trees in a forest taken from the ground and looking up towards the sky."/></h1>
<div class="single__byline-container___gBoqt"><div class="single__byline-wrapper___fuwNn"><div class="byline__wrapper___hSvwC"><div class="byline-inner"><p class="byline__authors___a2txN">By<span> </span><span class="byline author vcard"><a class="byline-link url fn n" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/author/katherine-bourzac">Katherine Bourzac</a></span></p>
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<div class="single__body___2pHuV"><div class="single__content___9ekjR"><div class="rich-text rich-text--with-sidebar single__rich-text___RmCDp"><p>The tissues of living trees may hold the secrets of why some can recover after drought and others die. But those tissues are challenging to assess in mature forests. After all, 90-year-old trees can’t travel to the lab to get an imaging scan. So most studies of the impacts of drought on plants are done in the lab and on younger trees — or by gouging cores out of mature trees.</p>
<p>Barbara Beikircher, an ecophysiologist at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, and colleagues came up with a different approach: They brought the lab to the trees.</p>
<p>In the Kranzberg Forest outside Munich, the team outfitted stands of mature spruce and beech trees with rugged, waterproof ultrasound sensors. Some of the stands had been covered by roofs to block the summer rain, creating artificial drought conditions.</p>
<img width="680" height="500" src="https://www.sciencenews.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/040423_kb_treeultrasound_inline1.jpg" alt="A photo of several trees with ultrasound equipment strapped to the trunks and short green fences surrounding the trees." class="wp-image-3123551"/><br />
<span class="caption wp-caption-3123551">Researchers outfitted stands of mature spruce and beech trees with ultrasound sensors and electrical probes to figure how the species cope with long dry spells.</span><span class="credit wp-credit-3123551">UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK</span><br />
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<p>Five years of monitoring revealed that beeches (<em>Fagus sylvatica</em>) are<span> </span><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/plb.13444" target="_blank" rel="noopener">more drought-resilient than spruces</a><span> </span>(<em>Picea abies</em>), the team reported in the December<span> </span><em>Plant Biology</em>. Delving into the underlying mechanisms explained this difference.</p>
<p>Drought-stressed trees produced more ultrasound signals than trees exposed to summer rains. Those faint acoustic waves were bouncing off air bubbles called embolisms deep within the trees’ vasculature.<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plant-sap-water-power-energy-world">Surface tension keeps water moving</a><span> </span>through a tree’s thousands of tiny vessels — evaporation from pores in leaves drives water up the trunk (<em>SN: 9/6/22</em>). But if there’s insufficient water in the soil, this upward pull can generate embolisms that clog vessels. In the experiments, spruces pinged much more than beeches, suggesting they had far more embolisms.</p>
<p>That’s despite the fact that beeches appear to be less conservative with their water management, at least aboveground. Trees can prevent embolisms by closing the pores on their leaves, but there’s a trade-off. Doing so cuts off the supply of the carbon dioxide that drives photosynthesis, which makes the carbohydrates and sugars that trees need to live and grow. In dry conditions, trees face an impossible choice “between starving and dying of thirst,” Beikircher says.</p>
<p>Beeches suffered fewer embolisms than the spruce, even though they kept their pores open longer than the conifers did. Perhaps that’s because beeches have roots that extend into deeper, wetter soil as well as more robust water reserves, Beikircher says. Another set of experiments after the researchers relieved the drought suggests that’s the case.</p>
<p>At the end of the experiment, the team drenched the soil. All the trees recovered well by most measures: Rates of photosynthesis in the previously parched trees caught up to the rates of trees in the control groups and embolisms filled with water.</p>
<p>But when Beikircher measured the trees’ resistance to an electrical current, an indication of moisture levels deep within trunks, the spruces’ water reserves were still depleted. One season of rain was not enough to help these trees fully recover. It’s unclear whether spruces can replenish their reserves after prolonged drought or how long that might take.</p>
<p>Species that can withstand drought conditions and recover more quickly may become more populous in future forests as<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/century/climate-change-carbon-dioxide-greenhouse-gas-emissions-global-warming">climate change causes droughts to become more frequent</a><span> </span>and intense (<em>SN: 3/10/22</em>). That means the compositions of the trees that make up the world’s temperate forests could change as the climate warms, with uncertain consequences for the other plants and animals in these ecosystems.</p>
<p>Beikircher plans to test whether a more diverse forest could help drought-sensitive species like the spruce survive. Deep-rooted beeches interspersed with spruces might help increase moisture in the soil’s upper levels by wicking water up to where spruce roots are, she says.</p>
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<p class="article-footer__feedback___sNXjz">Questions or comments on this article? E-mail us at <a href="mailto:feedback@sciencenews.org">feedback@sciencenews.org</a><span> </span>|<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/permission-republish">Reprints FAQ</a></p>
<div class="article-footer__citations___wiYwh"><h3 class="article-footer__citations-heading___6rnra">CITATIONS</h3>
<p>T. Knüver<span> </span><em>et al</em>.<span> </span><a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/plb.13444">Recovery after long-term summer drought: Hydraulic measurements reveal legacy effects in trunks of<span> </span><em>Picea abies</em><span> </span>but not in<span> </span><em>Fagus sylvatica</em></a>.<span> </span><em>Plant Biology</em>. Vol. 24, December 2022, p. 1240. doi: 10.1111/plb.13444.</p>
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<div class="sn-conversion rich-text rich-text--with-sidebar"><div id="donateConversion" class="wp-block-group donate-box">LINK: <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ultrasound-trees-drought-survival-secrets">https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ultrasound-trees-drought-survival-secrets</a></div>
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<p></p> Free Energy Definition in Sciencetag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2023-04-18:6363372:Topic:36337112023-04-18T13:07:37.267ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<div class="loc article-post-header"><div class="primary-image__media"><div class="img-placeholder"><img alt="Free energy is the amount of energy in a system that is available to do work." class="primary-image__image mntl-primary-image--blurry loaded" height="3581" src="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/qxDd8jVuzMqstkoGRc5Ql3QdXfQ=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc():format(webp)/460688633-56a12ec93df78cf77268351d.jpg" width="4894"></img></div>
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<span> </span><span class="figure-article-caption-text">Free energy is the amount of energy in a system that is available to do work.</span><span> </span><span class="figure-article-caption-owner">PM Images, Getty Images…</span><br />
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<div class="primary-image__media"><div class="img-placeholder"><img src="https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/qxDd8jVuzMqstkoGRc5Ql3QdXfQ=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc():format(webp)/460688633-56a12ec93df78cf77268351d.jpg" width="4894" height="3581" alt="Free energy is the amount of energy in a system that is available to do work." class="primary-image__image mntl-primary-image--blurry loaded"/></div>
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<span> </span><span class="figure-article-caption-text">Free energy is the amount of energy in a system that is available to do work.</span><span> </span><span class="figure-article-caption-owner">PM Images, Getty Images</span><br />
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<div class="loc article-pre-content"><div id="article-meta_1-0" class="comp article-meta mntl-block"><div id="reference-bylines_1-0" class="comp right-rail__offset reference-bylines mntl-bylines"><div id="mntl-bylines__group_1-0" class="comp mntl-bylines__group--author mntl-bylines__group mntl-block"><div id="mntl-bylines__item_1-0" class="comp mntl-bylines__item mntl-attribution__item mntl-attribution__item--has-date"><span class="mntl-attribution__item-descriptor">By</span><span> </span><div class="mntl-dynamic-tooltip--trigger"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/anne-marie-helmenstine-ph-d-601916" rel="nocaes" class="mntl-attribution__item-name">Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.</a></div>
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<div class="mntl-attribution__item-date">Updated on September 12, 2019</div>
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<div class="loc article-content"><div id="article-content_1-0" class="comp article-content mntl-block"><div id="mntl-sc-page_1-0" class="comp structured-content expert-content mntl-sc-page mntl-block"><p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">The phrase "free energy" has multiple definitions in science:</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-1" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<span class="heading-toc" id="toc-thermodynamic-free-energy"></span><br />
<h2 id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-2" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text">Thermodynamic Free Energy</span></h2>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-3" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">In physics and physical chemistry, free energy refers to the amount of internal energy of a thermodynamic system that is available to perform work. There are different forms of thermodynamic free energy:</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-4" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-5" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-gibbs-free-energy-605869"><strong>Gibbs free energy</strong></a><span> </span>is the<span> </span><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/energy-definition-and-examples-2698976">energy</a><span> </span>that may be converted into work in a system that is at constant temperature and pressure.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-6" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-7" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">The equation for Gibbs free energy is:</p>
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<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-9" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">G = H – TS</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-10" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-11" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">where G is Gibbs free energy, H is enthalpy, T is temperature, and S is entropy.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-12" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-13" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"><strong>Helmholtz free energy</strong><span> </span>is energy that may be converted into work at constant temperature and volume.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-14" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-15" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">The equation for Helmholtz free energy is:</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-16" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-17" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">A = U – TS</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-18" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-19" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">where A is the Helmholtz free energy, U is the internal energy of the system, T is<span> </span><a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-absolute-temperature-604354">the absolute temperature</a><span> </span>(Kelvin) and S is the entropy of the system.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-20" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-21" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html"><strong>Landau free energy</strong><span> </span>describes energy of an open system in which particles and energy may be exchanged with the surroundings.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-22" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-23" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">The equation for Landau free energy is:</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-24" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-25" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">Ω = A - μN = U - TS - μN</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-26" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-27" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">where N is the number of particles and μ is chemical potential.</p>
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<span class="heading-toc" id="toc-variational-free-energy"></span><br />
<h2 id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-29" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text">Variational Free Energy</span></h2>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-30" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">In information theory, variational free energy is a construct used in variational Bayesian methods. Such methods are used to approximate intractable integrals for statistics and machine learning.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-31" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<span class="heading-toc" id="toc-other-definitions"></span><br />
<h2 id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-32" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text">Other Definitions</span></h2>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-33" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">In environmental science and economics, the phrase "free energy" is sometimes used to refer to renewable resources or any energy that does not require monetary payment.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-34" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<p id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-35" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">Free energy may also refer to the energy that powers a hypothetical perpetual motion machine. Such a device violates the laws of thermodynamics, so this definition currently refers to a pseudoscience rather than hard science.</p>
<div id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-36" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-adslot mntl-block"></div>
<span class="heading-toc" id="toc-sources"></span><br />
<h2 id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-37" class="comp mntl-sc-block reference-sc-block-heading mntl-sc-block-heading"><span class="mntl-sc-block-heading__text">Sources</span></h2>
<ul id="mntl-sc-block_1-0-38" class="comp mntl-sc-block mntl-sc-block-html">
<li><cite>Baierlein, Ralph.<em>Thermal Physics</em>. Cambridge University Press, 2003, Cambridge, U.K.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Mendoza, E.; Clapeyron, E.; Carnot, R., eds.<span> </span><em>Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire – and other Papers on the Second Law of Thermodynamics</em>. Dover Publications, 1988, Mineola, N.Y.</cite></li>
<li><cite>Stoner, Clinton. “Inquiries into the Nature of Free Energy and Entropy in Respect to Biochemical Thermodynamics.” <em>Entropy</em>, vol. 2, no. 3, Sept. 2000, pp. 106–141., doi:10.3390/e2030106.</cite></li>
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<div id="sources-and-citation_1-0" class="comp sources-and-citation mntl-block">LINK: <a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-free-energy-605148">https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-free-energy-605148</a></div>
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</div> Free Energy An Overviewtag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2023-04-18:6363372:Topic:36339092023-04-18T13:05:08.543ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
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<div class="definition-inner padding-resp-m u-dark-theme"><div class="row gutters"><h1 class="u-font-serif u-text-light alt-xl">Free Energy</h1>
<p>The free energy (E) calculated from the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm model for Pb2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ adsorption was between 12 and 19kJ/mol.</p>
<p>From:<span> </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128200421000055"><span class="anchor-text">Sorbents Materials for…</span></a></p>
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<h1 class="u-font-serif u-text-light alt-xl">Free Energy</h1>
<p>The free energy (E) calculated from the Dubinin-Radushkevich isotherm model for Pb2+, Cu2+, and Cd2+ adsorption was between 12 and 19kJ/mol.</p>
<p>From:<span> </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128200421000055"><span class="anchor-text">Sorbents Materials for Controlling Environmental Pollution,<span> </span>2021</span></a></p>
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<h2 class="u-h3">Related terms:</h2>
<ul class="list-tags size-l">
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/nanoparticle"><span class="anchor-text">Nanoparticle</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/nucleation"><span class="anchor-text">Nucleation</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/enthalpy"><span class="anchor-text">Enthalpy</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/monomer"><span class="anchor-text">Monomer</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/surfactant"><span class="anchor-text">Surfactant</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/exergy"><span class="anchor-text">Exergy</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gibbs-free-energy"><span class="anchor-text">Gibbs Free Energy</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/adsorption"><span class="anchor-text">Adsorption</span></a></li>
<li class="list-tags-item"><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/sorption"><span class="anchor-text">Sorption</span></a></li>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-B9780128244982000100"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128244982000100"><span class="anchor-text">General applications</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>In </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128244982/thermal-physics-of-the-atmosphere"><span class="anchor-text">Thermal Physics of the Atmosphere (Second Edition)</span></a>, 2021</p>
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<h3>3.1.3<span> </span>Helmholtz free energy</h3>
<div><p><span>The Helmholtz <span class="topic-highlight">free energy</span>, or simply </span><em>free energy</em>, is another thermodynamic potential. The specific free energy<span> </span><em>f</em><span> </span>(in the wider literature the letter<span> </span><em>a</em><span> </span>is also used) is defined as</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(3.8)</span><span class="math">►�=�−��.</span></div>
<p>Specific free energy is an intensive variable; the free energy<span> </span><span class="math">�=�−��</span><span> </span>is an extensive variable. Its differential form again follows from the first law in differential form, analogous to the derivation of the differential of the enthalpy. We find</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(3.9)</span><span class="math">d�=−�d�−�d�.</span></div>
<p>The free energy has as natural variables the temperature and the volume. Free energy plays a central role in<span> </span><span id="B9780128244982000100-page42"></span><span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/statistical-mechanics" title="Learn more about statistical mechanics from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">statistical mechanics</a> where it is natural to consider systems with a given temperature and volume, so that their free energy is fixed. A typical technique of statistical mechanics is to maximize the entropy </span><em>S</em><span> </span>of a system (a measure of how probable a particular state is according to the Boltzmann definition of<span> </span><em>S</em>) for a fixed total energy<span> </span><em>U</em><span>. We then introduce a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/lagrange-multiplier" title="Learn more about Lagrange multiplier from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Lagrange multiplier</a> </span><em>β</em><span> </span>so that we maximize<span> </span><span class="math">�−��</span>. This can be interpreted as the (negative) free energy if<span> </span><em>β</em><span> </span>is interpreted as the inverse temperature. In this way, the microscopic world of statistical mechanics is linked to the macroscopic world of thermodynamics; see also Section<span> </span><span>4.7</span><span>. In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/atmospheric-science" title="Learn more about atmospheric science from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">atmospheric science</a> free energy is perhaps used less often.</span></p>
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<div><p>For the first derivatives of the free energy we find</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(3.10)</span><span class="math">�=−(∂�∂�)�,�=−(∂�∂�)�.</span></div>
<p>The corresponding Maxwell relation is</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(3.11)</span><span class="math">►(∂�∂�)�=(∂�∂�)�.</span></div>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-B9780128202449000056"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128202449000056"><span class="anchor-text">Energy processing by animals</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>David E. Reichle, in </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780128202449/the-global-carbon-cycle-and-climate-change"><span class="anchor-text">The Global Carbon Cycle and Climate Change</span></a>, 2020</p>
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<h3>5.2<span> </span>Free energy</h3>
<div><p><span><span class="topic-highlight">Free energy</span> or <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/gibbs-free-energy" title="Learn more about Gibbs free energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Gibbs free energy</a> G, is the energy available in a system to do useful work and is different from the total energy change of a chemical reaction. Thus,</span></p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(5.3)</span><span class="math">Δtotalenergy=Δutilizableenergy+Δnon-utilizable energyΔH=ΔG+TΔSorΔG=ΔH−TΔS</span></div>
<p>where:</p>
<dl class="article-list">
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0075">G is Gibbs free energy (kJ mol<sup>−1)</sup></p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0080"><span>H is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/heat-of-combustion" title="Learn more about heat of combustion from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">heat of combustion</a>, enthalpy (kJ mol</span><sup>−1</sup>)<span id="B9780128202449000056-p58"></span></p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0085">T is temperature (°Kelvin), and</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0090">S is entropy (J°K<sup>−1</sup>)</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div><p><span>To illustrate the concept of free energy, let us return to the familiar example of glucose <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/oxidation-reaction" title="Learn more about oxidation from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">oxidation</a>. When 1</span> mol of glucose combines with 6 mol of carbon dioxide and 6 mol of water, the heat of combustion, ΔH, amounts to 673,000 calories:</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(5.4)</span><span>C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> + 6O<sub>2</sub> = 6CO<sub>2</sub> + 6H<sub>2</sub>O + 673,000 cal</span></div>
</div>
<div><p><span>Since there is no volume change, the total energy change, ΔE, is equal to the change in enthalpy, ΔH. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/heat-of-formation" title="Learn more about heat of formation from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">heat of formation</a>, H, of glucose from the basic elements of CO</span><sub>2</sub><span> </span>and H<sub>2</sub>O can be calculated by subtracting the heat of combustion of glucose from the heats of formation of 6 mol of CO<sub>2</sub><span> </span>and 6 mol of H<sub>2</sub>O. The oxidation of 1 g-atomic-weight of solid carbon (graphite) to 1 mol of CO<sub>2</sub><span> </span>gas yields a heat of combustion, ΔH, of −94,240 cal. The heat of formation of 1 mol of water by the combustion of 1 <span>mol of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrogen-gas" title="Learn more about hydrogen gas from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">hydrogen gas</a> with ½ mole of oxygen gas amounts to −68,310</span> cal. The heat of formation, H, of glucose is then calculated as:</p>
<dl class="article-list">
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0120">6 mol CO<sub>2</sub><span> </span>(g) = 6 × −94,240 cal = −565,440 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0125">6 mol H<sub>2</sub>O (L) = 6 × −68,310 cal = −409,860 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0130">Heats of formation of products of glucose combustion: 975,300 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0135">Heat combustion of 1 mol glucose (g) = −673,000 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0140">Heat of formation of glucose from CO<sub>2</sub><span> </span>and H<sub>2</sub>O = −302,300 cal</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div><p>The free energy change, ΔG, in the formation of glucose can be calculated from the previous equation:</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(5.5)</span><span class="math">ΔG=ΔH−TΔS</span></div>
</div>
<div><p>Entropy values for the various atoms can be found in the<span> </span><em>Handbook of Physics and Chemistry.</em><span> </span>Essentially, the values given are relative heat capacities at very low temperature equivalent to absolute zero (−273°C):</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(5.6)</span><span class="math">6×1.3+12×15.62+6×24.52=−342.4entropyunits(for C)(for H)(for O)</span></div>
</div>
<div><p>One gram of glucose represents −50.7 entropy units.</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="math">Entropyforglucose=elementaryentropyof =entropyinglucose</span></div>
</div>
<div><div class="formula"><span class="label">(5.7)</span><span class="math">ΔS298at 25°C=−342.1+50.7atmos in glucose=−291.4entropyunits</span></div>
</div>
<div><p>Therefore:</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="math">ΔH=−302,300calTΔS=298×−291.4=+86,500calΔG298=−215,800cal</span></div>
<span id="B9780128202449000056-p59"></span></div>
<div><p><span>This is the free energy change in glucose formation. The free energy involved in the oxidation of glucose is the difference between the free <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/energy-of-formation" title="Learn more about energy of formation from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">energy of formation</a> of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/combustion-product" title="Learn more about combustion products from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">combustion products</a> and that of glucose, because by definition the free energy of O</span><sub>2</sub><span> </span>is zero.</p>
<dl class="article-list">
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0175">G in 6 mols CO<sub>2</sub> = 6 × (−94,100) = = −564,600 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0180">G in 6 mols H<sub>2</sub>O = 6 × (−56.560) = = −339,360 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0185">∑G in combustion products = −903,960 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0190">G of glucose = −215,800 cal</p>
</dd>
<dd><p id="B9780128202449000056-p0195">ΔG in combustion of glucose = −688,166 cal</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<p id="B9780128202449000056-p0200">The change in free energy, ΔG, when glucose is oxidized is thus about 2% greater than the heat of combustion, ΔH, measured in a<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/bomb-calorimeter" title="Learn more about bomb calorimeter from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">bomb calorimeter</a>. This is because of the heat capacities of the reaction products and the fact that the reacting systems could also absorb heat from the environment. Although the absolute values of ΔH and ΔG are usually similar, conceptually they are quite different.</p>
<p id="B9780128202449000056-p0205">At this point you may be confused about why free<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/calorific-value" title="Learn more about energy values from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">energy values</a><span> </span>have been negative. Gibbs free energy is a derived quantity that blends together the two great driving forces in chemical and physical processes, namely<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/enthalpy-change" title="Learn more about enthalpy change from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">enthalpy change</a><span> </span>and<span> </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/entropy-change" title="Learn more about entropy change from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">entropy change</a>. Think of entropy as the measure of the random movement of molecules in the system. High entropy means a more random or chaotic state, such as a gas compared to a liquid. Processes in which entropy decreases tend not to occur in nature, unless there is a significant input of energy to cause them to take place.</p>
<p id="B9780128202449000056-p0210">Consider a reaction run at constant temperature, ΔG = <span>ΔH−TΔS, where ΔH is the enthalpy change (the heat of the reaction) and ΔS is the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/change-in-entropy" title="Learn more about change in entropy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">change in entropy</a>, If the free energy is negative, there is a change in enthalpy and entropy that favor the process and it occurs spontaneously. When Δ G is negative, the reaction is exergonic, and releases energy. This includes <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/exothermic-reaction" title="Learn more about exothermic reactions from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">exothermic reactions</a> in which the entropy increases, or exothermic reactions which have small decreases in entropy (as long as the temperature is relatively high), and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/endothermic-reaction" title="Learn more about endothermic reactions from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">endothermic reactions</a> which are accompanied by large increases in entropy (like evaporation of water). When Δ G is negative, then the reaction is exergonic and releases energy.</span></p>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-S0921319806800268"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921319806800268"><span class="anchor-text">Geological Sequestration of Carbon Dioxide</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>In </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/bookseries/developments-in-geochemistry"><span class="anchor-text">Developments in Geochemistry</span></a>, 2007</p>
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<h3>6.2.1<span> </span>Nucleation and crystal growth</h3>
<div><p id="S0921319806800268-para58"><span>The precipitation of a solid phase comprises two distinct stages: nucleation, first, and crystal growth, afterwards. Nucleation is called homogeneous if the nuclei form in the bulk solution, whereas it is termed heterogeneous if they form on a solid surface. To describe the process, it is instructive to consider the variation of the <span class="topic-highlight">free energy</span> of precipitation, Δ</span><em>G</em><sub><em>n</em></sub>, as a function of the radius of a hypothetical single crystal (<span>Fig. 6.3</span>).</p>
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<p id="spara3"><span class="label">Figure 6.3</span>.<span> </span>Schematic diagram of the free energy of precipitation, Δ<em>G</em><sub><em>n</em></sub>, vs. the radius,<span> </span><em>r</em>, of a hypothetical single crystal. Note that Δ<em>G</em><sub><em>n</em></sub><span> </span>increases up to a maximum during nucleation and decreases afterwards during crystal growth. The effect of the degree of oversaturation, Ω, is also shown.</p>
<span class="captions"><span id="cecap30"></span><span>Reprinted from Stumm and Morgan (1996), modified, copyright (1996), with permission of Wiley.</span></span><br />
</div>
<div><p><span id="S0921319806800268-p182"></span>The free energy of precipitation depends on the balance of two terms:</p>
<dl class="article-list">
<dt>(i)</dt>
<dd><p id="S0921319806800268-para60">The interfacial free energy, which represents the energy associated with the formation of the interface between the growing crystal and the aqueous solution or, in other terms, the work required to generate this surface; this term is positive and depends on the square of the radius for a spherical crystal.</p>
</dd>
<dt>(ii)</dt>
<dd><p id="S0921319806800268-para61">The bulk free energy, which is negative and depends on the cube of the radius for a spherical crystal; besides, it is a function of the degree of oversaturation Ω (see<span> </span><span>Section 6.4</span><span> </span>for the definition of Ω).</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para62">During nucleation (i.e. during the formation of the so-called<span> </span><em>crystal embryo</em>), the interfacial free energy is greater than the bulk term and, consequently, the system experiences a net free energy increase. This increase occurs up to a maximum, corresponding to the balance between the interfacial and bulk terms. The growing solid phase, at this point, is called<span> </span><em>critical nucleus.</em></p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para63">The further increase in the size of the critical nucleus is accompanied by a net decrease in free energy and the process becomes spontaneous for Δ<em>G</em><sub><em>n</em></sub><span> </span>< 0. This stage is known as crystal growth and the growing solid phase is referred to as a crystal. Of course, the transfer of material from the aqueous solution to the crystal goes on till the attainment of saturation (equilibrium).</p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para64">The increase in Ω brings about both a decrease in the size of the critical nucleus and a decrease in the maximum of the Δ<em>G</em><sub><em>n</em></sub>–radius curve (<span>Fig. 6.3</span>). Since, during nucleation, the rate is an exponential function of the free energy of the process, nucleation proceeds fast for high values of Ω and vice versa.</p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para65">In the considered system, nucleation and crystal growth compete for the dissolved material. For high values of Ω, nucleation may proceed so fast that most dissolved material is used to constitute critical nuclei, whereas little is available for crystal growth. If so, a very fine-grained precipitate is formed. On the contrary, for low values of Ω, nucleation may proceed so slow that most dissolved material is consumed by crystal growth, involving a small number of critical nuclei. If so, a coarser mineral is produced.</p>
<div><p>In general, crystal growth comprises several mechanisms and its rate is limited by the slowest one. In particular, the rate of crystal growth may be governed by either</p>
<dl class="article-list">
<dt>(i)</dt>
<dd><p id="S0921319806800268-para67">the transport of solute particles from the bulk aqueous solution to the crystal surface and, in this case, it is termed<span> </span><em>transport-controlled</em>, or</p>
</dd>
<dt>(ii)</dt>
<dd><p id="S0921319806800268-para68">one of the numerous reactions taking place at the surface of the growing crystal and, if so, it is called<span> </span><em>surface-reaction controlled</em><span> </span>or</p>
</dd>
<dt>(iii)</dt>
<dd><p id="S0921319806800268-para69">by a combination of these two different mechanisms.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div><p id="S0921319806800268-para70">The change in the concentration of the relevant solute(s) moving away from the crystal surface towards the bulk aqueous solution is different, depending on the mechanism controlling crystal growth, as shown schematically in<span> </span><span>Fig. 6.4</span>.</p>
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<p id="spara4"><span class="label">Figure 6.4</span>.<span> </span>Plots (a) and (b) show schematically the change in the concentration of a relevant solute as a function of the distance from the crystal surface for (a) transport-controlled dissolution and precipitation and (b) surface-reaction-controlled processes. Plots (c) and (d) represent the change in concentration as a function of time in a generic batch experiment for (a) transport-controlled and (b) surface-reaction-controlled dissolution.</p>
<span class="captions"><span id="cecap40"></span><span>Reprinted from Stumm and Morgan (1996), modified, copyright (1996), with permission from Wiley.</span></span><br />
</div>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para71">In transport-controlled crystal growth (<span>Fig. 6.4a</span><span>), addition of solute particles to the solid surface (i.e. the surface reaction under way) is so quick that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/solute-transport" title="Learn more about Solute Transport from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">solute transport</a> in the aqueous phase cannot keep up with it. Therefore, solute concentration in the aqueous solution near the solid surface decreases sharply and gets close to the saturation (equilibrium) value. Solute transport in the aqueous solution takes place through either <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/advection" title="Learn more about Advection from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">advection</a>, which is the fastest way, or diffusion, which is slowest way. Transport-controlled crystal growth depends on hydrodynamic conditions and stirring accelerates it.</span></p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para72"><span id="S0921319806800268-p183"></span>In surface-reaction controlled crystal growth (<span>Fig. 6.4b</span>), addition of solute particles to the solid surface is so slow that transport processes, even diffusion, are able to supply new solute particles near the growing crystal surface. In this case, there is little change in solute concentration between the aqueous layer close to the solid surface and the bulk solution, and crystal growth is virtually independent of hydrodynamic conditions.</p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para73">Intermediate situations are possible depending on the relative speed of solute addition to the crystal surface and solute transport in the aqueous phase. Both mechanisms govern the rate of crystal growth.</p>
<p id="S0921319806800268-para74"><span id="S0921319806800268-p184"></span>To identify the mechanism controlling the rate of crystal growth, experimentally determined rates are compared with those computed for the slowest type of aqueous transport, i.e. molecular (ionic) diffusion. Measured rates faster than diffusion-controlled rates are evidently explained by advective transport, whereas slower measured rates suggest that crystal growth is governed by reactions occurring at the solid surface.</p>
<div><p>Following<span> </span><span>Nielsen (1964)</span>, the diffusion-controlled rate is computed by means of the following equation:</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(6-51)</span><span class="math">�����=�⋅��⋅(��−��)��</span></div>
<p>where<span> </span><em>r</em><sub>c</sub><span> </span>is the mean radius of the crystals; ν the molar volume of the precipitating substance;<span> </span><em>D</em><sub>S</sub><span> the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/diffusion-coefficient" title="Learn more about Diffusion Coefficient from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">diffusion coefficient</a> of solute particles in the aqueous solution; </span><em>C</em><sub>B</sub><span> </span>and<span> </span><em>C</em><sub>S</sub><span> </span>are the concentrations of the solute in the bulk aqueous solution and close to the crystal surface, respectively; and<span> </span><em>t</em><span> </span>time. Assuming<span> </span><em>C</em><sub>B</sub><span> </span>to be constant, integration of<span> </span><span>equation (6-51)</span><span> </span>gives</p>
<div class="formula"><span class="label">(6-52)</span><span class="math">��=[��,�=02+2⋅�⋅��⋅(��−��)⋅�]1/2</span></div>
<p>where<span> </span><em>r</em><sub>c, t</sub><sub>=</sub><sub>0</sub><span> </span>is the average radius of the crystals at time “zero, ” i.e. at the beginning of crystal growth, i.e. at the end of the nucleation step.<span> </span><span>equations (6-51)</span><span> </span>and<span> </span><span>(6-52)</span><span> </span>apply to equidimensional crystals of regular shape (e.g. spheres, cubes, etc.) separated by at least five diameters.</p>
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<p id="S0921319806800268-para76">Alternatively, crystal growth is experimentally carried out at different temperatures and the temperature dependence of the rate is established to infer the controlling mechanism (see<span> </span><span>Section 6.1.3</span>). Besides, dependence on hydrodynamic conditions suggests transport control and vice versa, as already mentioned.</p>
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<div class="size-l"><p><span>W.J. Feast, in </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080878621/polymer-science-a-comprehensive-reference"><span class="anchor-text">Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference</span></a>, 2012</p>
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<h3>4.26.2.4.1<span> </span>General considerations</h3>
<p id="B9780444533494000960-p0145"><span>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/gibbs-free-energy" title="Learn more about free energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">free energy</a> for ring opening of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/cyclopentene" title="Learn more about cyclopentene from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">cyclopentene</a> is considerably less favorable than that of cyclobutene and, depending on the position and kind of substitution on the ring, Δ</span><em>G</em><span> </span>can be just positive or just negative.<span><sup>15,16</sup></span><span> Nevertheless, cyclopentene and many of its derivatives do undergo <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/ring-opening-metathesis-polymerisation" title="Learn more about ROMP from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">ROMP</a> readily, polymer formation being favored by lower temperatures and higher <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemical-engineering/monomer" title="Learn more about monomer from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">monomer</a> concentrations. At one point several years ago, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/single-monomer-polymer" title="Learn more about homopolymer from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">homopolymer</a> from cyclopentene, polypentenamer, was under serious consideration as a substitute for commercial <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/dienes" title="Learn more about diene from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">diene</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/elastomer" title="Learn more about elastomer from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">elastomer</a> manufacture; indeed, it was reported that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/prototype-vehicle" title="Learn more about prototype vehicle from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">prototype vehicle</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/tyre" title="Learn more about tires from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">tires</a> were made and road tested before changes in economics and tire technology made the venture nonviable.</span></p>
<p id="B9780444533494000960-p0150">The mnemonic in<span> </span><span><strong>Figure 4</strong></span><span> indicates that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/cyclopentadienyl" title="Learn more about cyclopentadienyl from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">cyclopentadienyl</a> radical is not a stable entity and will display a strong tendency to pick up an electron and become an aromatic cyclopentadienyl anion, as is indeed the case. So the direct route from cyclopentadienyl radical portrayed in </span><span><strong>Figure 3</strong></span><span> is out of the question and routes to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/conjugated-polymer" title="Learn more about conjugated polymers from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">conjugated polymers</a> involving ROMP of cyclopentene derivatives will inevitably involve other steps in the overall scheme. The ring-opening polymerizability of five-membered rings is enhanced by strain and this can be induced by making them part of a polycyclic structure, </span><em>vide infra.</em></p>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-B978008056033500001X"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008056033500001X"><span class="anchor-text">Basic Aspects of Radiation Effects in Solids/Basic Aspects of Multi-Scale Modeling</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>W.G. Wolfer, in </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080560335/comprehensive-nuclear-materials"><span class="anchor-text">Comprehensive Nuclear Materials</span></a>, 2012</p>
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<h3>1.01.7.4.4<span> </span>Chemical potential of vacancies at cavities</h3>
<p id="B978008056033500001X-p0620"><span>The <span class="topic-highlight">free energy</span> of a void or bubble, according to </span><span>eqn [127]</span>, depends now on three surface parameters instead of just one as in<span> </span><span>eqn [105]</span><span>: it depends on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/interfacial-energy" title="Learn more about surface energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">surface energy</a> </span><em>γ</em><sub>0</sub><span> </span>of a planar surface, on the residual surface strain<span> </span><em>ε</em>* for such a planar surface, and on the biaxial surface stretch modulus 2(<em>μ</em><sub>S</sub> + <em>λ</em><sub>S</sub>). As mentioned above, the latter has the dimension of N m<sup>−1</sup><span>, and we may then relate it to the corresponding <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/elastic-moduli" title="Learn more about bulk modulus from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">bulk modulus</a> 2</span><em>μ</em><sub>M</sub>/(1–2<em>ν</em><sub>M</sub>) by multiplying the latter with a surface layer thickness parameter<span> </span><em>h</em>. The surface energy<span> </span><em>γ</em><sub>0</sub><span> </span>has been determined both experimentally and from<span> </span><em>ab initio</em><span> </span>calculations and can be considered as known. The surface layer has been determined by Hamilton and Wolfer<span><sup>10</sup></span><span> from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/atomistic-simulation" title="Learn more about atomistic simulations from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">atomistic simulations</a> on Cu <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/thin-films" title="Learn more about thin films from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">thin films</a> to be one monolayer thick; hence </span><em>d = b</em>. A value for the residual surface strain parameter<span> </span><em>ε</em>* has been chosen in<span> </span><span><strong>Section 1.01.3.1</strong></span><span> </span>such that it reproduces the relaxation volume of a vacancy according to<span> </span><span>eqn [11]</span>.</p>
<div><p id="B978008056033500001X-p0625">What if one selects the same value for voids containing<span> </span><em>n</em><span> </span>vacancies? The relative relaxation volume, that is, the ratio<span> </span><span class="math">��VR/(�Ω)=3ɛ(�(�))</span>, can now be computed with<span> </span><span>eqn [123]</span><span> </span>and the results are shown in<span> </span><span><strong>Figure 23</strong></span><span> </span>by the solid curve. As it must, for<span> </span><em>n</em> = 1 it reproduces the vacancy relaxation volume of −0.25<em>Ω</em>. In addition, it also agrees with the overall trend of the atomistic results of Shimomura.<span><sup>48</sup></span><span> </span>Of course, the atomistic results for small vacancy cluster vary in a discontinuous manner with the cluster size. The surface stress model gives not only a reasonable approximation to these atomistic results, but also a valid extrapolation to relaxation volumes of large voids.</p>
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<div><p id="B978008056033500001X-p0630">The chemical potential of vacancies for voids can now be computed with<span> </span><span>eqn [127]</span><span> </span>as<span> </span><em>F</em><sub>C</sub>(<em>R</em>(<em>n + </em>1))<em> − F</em><sub>C</sub>(<em>R</em>(<em>n</em>)).<span> </span><span><strong>Figure 24</strong></span><span> </span>shows the results for Ni as the solid curve. The vacancy chemical potentials for voids are significantly lower than the capillary approximation predicts with a fixed surface energy (dashed curve). The chemical potentials from atomistic simulations of voids in Ni have been obtained by Adams and Wolfer<span><sup>49</sup></span><span> </span>using the Ni-EAM potential of Foiles<span> </span><em>et al</em>.<span><sup>50</sup></span><span> </span>These results converge to those predicted with the surface stress mode</p>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-B9780444516640500279"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444516640500279"><span class="anchor-text">New Techniques for Optimization of Particulate Cleaning</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>Per M. Claesson, ... Andrew Fogden, in </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780444516640/handbook-for-cleaning-decontamination-of-surfaces"><span class="anchor-text">Handbook for Cleaning/Decontamination of Surfaces</span></a>, 2007</p>
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<h3>2.2.<span> </span>Surface Force Techniques and Detachment Force Measurements</h3>
<p id="B9780444516640500279-para16"><span>The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/gibbs-free-energy" title="Learn more about free energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">free energy</a> change per unit area (ΔG) accompanying the separation of a surface from another can be directly measured with a range of different techniques, such as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/atomic-force-microscopy" title="Learn more about AFM from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">AFM</a> and the surface force apparatus, SFA. The principles of such force measuring techniques will not be discussed here, but the interested reader is referred to the review by Claesson et al. and references therein [</span><span>4</span>]. By means of the Derjaguin approximation, the force (<em>F</em>) measured between a flat surface and a sphere with radius<span> </span><em>R</em><span> </span>is equal to the force between two crossed cylindrical surface (<em>F</em>) with a geometrie mean radius of<span> </span><em>R</em><span>, and related to the <span class="topic-highlight">free energy</span> of interaction per unit area between flat surfaces at the same separation (</span><em>D</em>) as [<span>5</span>,<span>6</span>]:</p>
<div><div class="formula"><span class="label">(4)</span><span class="math">�(�)2��=�(�)flat</span></div>
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<p id="B9780444516640500279-para18"><span>This relation is valid provided R ≫ D and provided surface deformation effects can be ignored. There are numerous reports in the literature describing forces acting between solid surfaces in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/surface-active-agent" title="Learn more about Surfactant from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Surfactant</a> solutions, see e.g. [</span><span>7</span>] and references therein. Both long-range forces and contact forces are reported in the literature. For instance, the adhesion force in air is determined by bringing the surfaces into contact in air, and then separating them. Likewise, the adhesion force in water is determined by bringing the surfaces together in water and then separating them from contact. In a similar manner, the adhesion force between adsorbed Surfactant layers is determined in aqueous Surfactant solutions. The information obtained from such measurements is of great value. However, in most cases these measurements do not mimic the detachment process in a typical cleaning process sufficiently.</p>
<p id="B9780444516640500279-para19"><span id="B9780444516640500279-p890"></span>In a typical cleaning situation, the particle attaches to the surface in air and is removed in a liquid cleaning formulation. The nature of contact in the dry state is different from the nature of contact in the wet state, and a manifestation of this is the well-known observation from industrial tests that it is much more difficult to remove particles that have dried onto a surface than it is to remove particles that attach in the wet state and never is allowed to dry onto the surface. In contrast to this typical situation in a cleaning process, the measurements of adhesion forces in air, as carried out with e.g. the SFA, mimics the situation when a particle attaches and is removed in air. Similarly, the adhesion force measured in water by bringing the surfaces together from a large separation and then separating them relates to the process, of adsorbing and removing a partiele in water. In order to relate the surface force measurements to a typical cleaning process, a different measuring strategy has to be adopted. The surfaces are brought together in air, and then a droplet of an aqueous solution is placed around the contact region. Finally, the surfaces are separated within this droplet. The force needed to separate the surfaces under these conditions will be referred to as the detachment force in order to distinguish it from the adhesion forces (also called pull-off forces in the literature) normally measured with surface force techniques. The process described above can easily be adopted using the SFA, but the measurements are rather time consuming since only one measurement of the detachment force can be obtained in each experiment. On the subsequent approach the surfaces will be wetted, and on subsequent removal, the adhesion force in the liquid will be measured instead of the detachment force.</p>
<div><p id="B9780444516640500279-para20"><span>One may of course ask if the values of the adhesion force and the detachment force are significantly different, and if a distinction between these two quantifies is meaningful. The answer is yes. For instance, in the case of two <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/muscovite" title="Learn more about muscovite from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">muscovite</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/mica-surface" title="Learn more about mica surfaces from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">mica surfaces</a> the adhesion force in dry air is about 1100 mN/m [</span><span>8</span>], and the adhesion force in water is about 30–50 mN/m [<span>9</span><span>]. In contrast, the detachment force in water is about 300 mN/m, i.e. more than a factor of three lower than the adhesion force in air, and about a factor of 10 larger than the adhesion force in water! The detachment force is lower than the adhesion force in air due to water adsorption that lowers the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/interfacial-energy" title="Learn more about interfacial energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">interfacial energy</a>. The reason that it is larger than the adhesion force in water is that when the surfaces are brought into contact in water some water will remain between the surfaces also when they are “in contact”, i.e. the contact situation is different in the two cases [</span><span>10</span>]. This is illustrated by the schematic force curve in<span> </span><span>Figure 8.2</span>. The detachment force is the magnitude of the force at point D, whereas during normal force measuring procedures the force is measured from large distances,<span id="B9780444516640500279-p891"></span><span>over the force barrier (A), into an adhesive minimum at B (the magnitude of which is the adhesion force), and further in another very large force barrier is encountered (C). In most experiments, this force barrier is not overcome and the “contact” achieved is not absolutely dry (except when <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/hydrophobic-surface" title="Learn more about hydrophobic surfaces from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">hydrophobic surfaces</a> are used).</span></p>
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<p id="B9780444516640500279-para21"><span>No systematic study of detachment forces in presence of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/surface-active-agent" title="Learn more about Surfactants from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Surfactants</a> and polymers has yet been published. However, the relation between detachment forces and cleaning has been investigated during the past years within the competence center “Surfactants based on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/occurrence-in-nature" title="Learn more about natural products from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">natural products</a>, SNAP”. One generai conclusion that has emerged from these studies is that the detachment force is smaller than the adhesion force in air and larger than the adhesion force in water in all cases investigated so far. We note that the adhesion force between Surfactant layers as measured with surface force techniques is typically between zero and a few milli newton per meter, whereas the detachment force between one <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/hydrophilicity" title="Learn more about hydrophilic from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">hydrophilic</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/mica-surface" title="Learn more about mica surface from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">mica surface</a> and one hydrophobized surface in different <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/surfactant-system" title="Learn more about Surfactant Systems from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Surfactant Systems</a> varies significantly more, from close to zero in a few exceptional cases up</span><span id="B9780444516640500279-p892"></span>to typical values in the order of 10 mN/m. We have also found a satisfac-tory correlation between a low detachment force and good performance in industrial tests.</p>
<div><p id="B9780444516640500279-para22">Some selected data where the detachment force is expressed in fractions of the adhesion force in air are shown in<span> </span><span>Figure 8.3</span><span>. We note that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/anionic-surfactant" title="Learn more about anionic Surfactants from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">anionic Surfactants</a> linear <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/alkylbenzene" title="Learn more about alkylbenzene from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">alkylbenzene</a> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/sulfonate" title="Learn more about sulfonate from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">sulfonate</a> (LAS) and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/sodium-dodecyl-sulfate" title="Learn more about sodium dodecyl sulfate from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">sodium dodecyl sulfate</a> (SDS) show very similar effect on the detachment force. The anionic Surfactants alone are slightly more efficient than the non-ionic Surfactants alone in their lowering of the detachment force with one exception, the branched nonionic glucoside C</span><sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>Glu that gives rise to a lower detachment force. The data in<span> </span><span>Figure 8.3</span><span> </span>also show how addition of polymers can be beneficiai in lowering the detachment force. One polymer studied, called M4, is weakly cationic and carries grafted<span id="B9780444516640500279-p893"></span>poly(oxyethylene) chains. Alone, it is not able to reduce the detachment force significantly. However, when combined with an anionic Surfactant the mixture that contains only 20 ppm of polymer, reduces the detachment force significantly more than the polymer alone and the Surfactant alone.</p>
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<p id="spara3"><span class="label">Figure 8.3</span>.<span> </span>Detachment force divided by the adhesion force in air. The detachment force was measured at a surfactant concentration above the cmc using one hydrophilic mica surface and one hydrophobized mica surface. The surfactants were: C<sub>12</sub>E<sub>5</sub>, penta(oxyethylene) dodecyl ether; C<sub>l0</sub>Glu,<span> </span><em>n</em>-decyl β–<span class="small-caps">d</span><span> </span>glucopyranoside; C<sub>2</sub>C<sub>6</sub>Glu, 2–ethylhexyl α–glucoside; Sterol ethoxylate, a sterol backbone connected with a 25 unit long poly(oxyethylene) chain; LAS, linear alkyl sulphate; SDS, sodium dodecyl sulphate, M4 a weakly cationic polymer with grafted EO–chains. The concentration of the polymer was 20 ppm</p>
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<p id="B9780444516640500279-para23">The reduction in the detachment force in presence of a Surfactant can be understood by considering that adsorption reduces the interfacial energy as described by the Gibb's equation. If we assume that the Surfactants do not adsorb in the gap between the surfaces, then the particle-surface interfacial energy is not affected. (This is confirmed by the SFA measurements which show that the contact position is not affected by introduction of the droplet around the rim of the contact zone). On the other hand, the Surfactants are likely to adsorb on the surfaces of the partiele and the substrate, reducing their interfacial energy with water. The relation between the detachment force in the Surfactant solution and in water is then given by;</p>
<div><div class="formula"><span class="label">(5)</span><span class="math">(�2��)sol=(�2��)w−∫�(�=0)�(�=�')�s��−∫�(�=0)�(�=�')�p��</span></div>
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<p id="B9780444516640500279-para25">where the subscripts “sol” stands for Surfactant solution, “w” for water, “s” for substrate surface and “p” for partiele surface. Thus, a Surfactant that is efficient in lowering the detachment force should adsorb strongly to both the substrate surface to be cleaned and the particulate soil surface. In particular, the larger the integral of the adsorption isotherms the larger the reduction in detachment force.</p>
<p id="B9780444516640500279-para26">Surface force techniques are also useful for unraveling the events occurring during removal of proteins [<span>11</span>], polymers [<span>12</span><span>] and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/polyelectrolyte" title="Learn more about polyelectrolytes from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">polyelectrolytes</a> [</span><span>13</span>] from surfaces by addition of Surfactants. In some cases, large swelling of the layer occurs prior to desorption [<span>14</span>], in other cases a graduai thinning of the layer is observed [<span>15</span>], and in still other cases complex polymer–surfactant structures are formed at the surface [<span>16</span><span>]. It can also be the case that the Surfactant mainly adsorb on top of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/polyelectrolyte" title="Learn more about polyelectrolyte from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">polyelectrolyte</a> layer with minimal reduction in the adsorbed mass of polymer [[</span><span>17</span>],[<span>18</span>].</p>
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<div class="snippet-content"><h2 class="u-font-serif u-text-light" id="tp-snippet-chp-title-B9780080967011000434"><a class="anchor anchor-navigation" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080967011000434"><span class="anchor-text">Polymer Properties</span></a></h2>
<div class="size-l"><p><span>Richard A. Brown, ... Xue Feng Yuan, in </span><a class="anchor anchor-default" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080967011/comprehensive-polymer-science-and-supplements"><span class="anchor-text">Comprehensive Polymer Science and Supplements</span></a>, 1989</p>
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<h3>6.3.4<span> </span>Thermodynamic Studies</h3>
<p id="B9780080967011000434-p0475"><span>Standard free energies of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/micellization" title="Learn more about micellization from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">micellization</a> Δ</span><em>G</em><span> </span>and their enthalpy Δ<em>H</em><span> </span>and entropy –<span><em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/point-group-t" title="Learn more about T from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">T</a></em></span>Δ<em>S</em><span> </span>components have been determined by Price<span> </span><em>et al.</em><span> for a number of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/block-copolymer" title="Learn more about block copolymers from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">block copolymers</a> in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/organic-solvents" title="Learn more about organic solvents from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">organic solvents</a> using light scattering, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/membrane-osmometry" title="Learn more about membrane osmometry from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">membrane osmometry</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/calorimetry" title="Learn more about calorimetry from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">calorimetry</a>.</span><span><sup>153–158</sup></span></p>
<div><p id="B9780080967011000434-p0480">One of the systems studied<span><sup>153</sup></span><span> </span>was a polystyrene-<em>block</em>-poly(ethylene/propylene) (37 300:59 700<span> </span><em>M</em><sub>n</sub><span>) <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/copolymer" title="Learn more about copolymer from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">copolymer</a> in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/decane" title="Learn more about decane from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">decane</a>. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electron-microscopy" title="Learn more about Electron microscopy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">Electron microscopy</a> studies showed that the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/micelle" title="Learn more about micelles from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">micelles</a> formed by the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/block-copolymer" title="Learn more about block copolymer from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">block copolymer</a> were spherical in shape and had a narrow size distribution. Since decane is a selectively bad solvent for <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/polystyrene" title="Learn more about polystyrene from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">polystyrene</a>, the latter component formed the cores of the micelles. The <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/micelle" title="Learn more about cmc from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">cmc</a> of the block copolymer was first determined at different temperatures by osmometry. </span><span>Figure 13</span><span> </span>shows a plot of π/<em>cRT</em><span> </span>against<span> </span><em>c</em><span> </span>(where<span> </span><em>c</em><span> </span>is the concentration of the solution) for<span> </span><em>T</em> = 97.1 <span>°C. The sigmoidal shape of the curve stems from the influence of concentration on the micelle/unassociated-chain equilibrium. When the concentration of the solution is very low most of the chains are unassociated; extrapolation of the curve to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/infinite-dilution" title="Learn more about infinite dilution from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">infinite dilution</a> gives </span><span class="math">�n−1</span><span> of the unassociated chains. On increasing the concentration of the solution the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/osmotic-pressure" title="Learn more about osmotic pressure from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">osmotic pressure</a> decreases rapidly over a narrow concentration range as expected for closed association. The arrow indicates the cmc. At higher concentrations <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/micelle" title="Learn more about micelle from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">micelle</a> formation is favoured, the positive slope in this region being governed by virial terms. Similar shaped curves were obtained for other temperatures.</span></p>
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<div><p id="B9780080967011000434-p0485">The slope of the linear plot of ln(cmc) against<span> </span><em>T</em><sup>−1</sup><span> </span>(see<span> </span><span>Figure 14</span>) gave a value for Δ<em>H</em><span> </span>of −130 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>. The values of Δ<em>G</em><span> </span>and<span> </span><em>T</em>Δ<em>S</em><span> </span>for<span> </span><em>T</em> = 86 °C were −30 and 100 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup><span> </span>respectively; the standard states are ideally dilute with<span> </span><em>c</em> = 1 mol dm<sup>−3</sup>.</p>
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<div><p id="B9780080967011000434-p0490"><span>A more convenient method of obtaining the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/thermodynamic-function" title="Learn more about thermodynamic functions from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">thermodynamic functions</a>, however, is to determine the cmc at different concentrations. A plot of light-scattering intensity against concentration is shown in </span><span>Figure 15</span><span> </span>for a solution of concentration<span> </span><em>c</em> = 3.8 × 10<sup>−5</sup><span> </span>g cm<sup>−3</sup><span> </span>and a scattering angle of 60°. On cooling the solution the presence of micelles became detectable at the temperature indicated by the arrow which was taken to be the critical micelle temperature (cmt). On further cooling the weight fraction of micelles increases rapidly leading to a rapid increase in scattering intensity at lower temperatures till the micellar state predominates. The slope of the linear plot of ln<span> </span><em>c</em><span> </span>against (cmt)<sup>−1</sup><span> </span>shown in<span> </span><span>Figure 16</span>, which is equivalent to the more traditional plot of ln(cmc) against<span> </span><em>T</em><sup>−1</sup>, gave a value of Δ<em>H</em> = −141 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup><span> </span>which is in fair agreement with the result obtained by osmometry considering the difficulties in locating the cmc by the osmometric method. Direct calorimetric measurements gave a value of 138 kJ mol<sup>−1</sup><span> </span>for Δ<em>H.</em></p>
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<p id="mc0015"><span class="label">Figure 15</span>.<span> </span>A plot of light-scattering intensity against temperature for a polystyrene-<em>block</em>-poly(ethylene/propylene) (37 000:59 700<span> </span><em>M</em><sub>n</sub>) copolymer in decane. The concentration of the solution was 3.85 × 10<sup>−5</sup><span> </span>gcm<sup>−3</sup><span> </span>and the angle of scatter 60°. The arrow indicates the cmt (reproduced from ref.<span> </span><span>153</span>)</p>
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<div><p id="B9780080967011000434-p0495">Results obtained for a range of polymers are given in<span> </span><span>Table 3</span>.<span><sup>154, 155, 159</sup></span><span> The first two sets of results were obtained using light-scattering to determine the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/micelle" title="Learn more about cmt from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">cmt</a>. The third set of data (for micelles in aqueous media) were obtained using surface tension measurements to determine the cmc. The results show that for block <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/copolymer" title="Learn more about copolymers from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">copolymers</a> in organic solvents it is the enthalpy contribution to the standard <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/gibbs-free-energy" title="Learn more about free energy from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">free energy</a> change which is responsible for micelle formation. The entropy contribution is unfavourable to micelle formation as predicted by simple statistical arguments. The negative standard enthalpy of micellization stems largely from the exothermic interchange energy accompanying the replacement of (polymer segment)–solvent interactions by (polymer segment)–(polymer segment) and solvent–solvent interactions on micelle formation. The block copolymer micelles are held together by net <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/van-der-waals-force" title="Learn more about van der Waals interactions from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">van der Waals interactions</a> and could meaningfully be described as van der Waals <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/macromolecule" title="Learn more about macromolecules from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">macromolecules</a>. The combined effect per copolymer chain is an attractive interaction similar in magnitude to that posed by a covalent chemical bond.</span></p>
<div class="tables frame-topbot" id="B9780080967011000434-t0015"><p id="mc0027"><span class="label">Table 3</span>.<span> </span>Thermodynamics of Micellization<span><sup>a</sup></span></p>
<div class="groups"><table>
<thead><tr><th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-left">Polymer</th>
<th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-center"><em>M</em><span><sup>b</sup></span></th>
<th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-center"><em>M</em><span><sup>c</sup></span></th>
<th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-center">Δ<em>G</em><span> </span>(kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>)</th>
<th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-center">Δ<em>H</em><span> </span>(kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>)</th>
<th scope="col" class="valign-bottom align-center">−<em>T</em>Δ<em>S</em><span> </span>(kJ mol<sup>−1</sup>)</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody><tr><td class="valign-top align-left">Polystyrene-<em>block</em>-polyisoprene copolymer<span><sup>d</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">24 600<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">7000<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−21.4</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−40.7</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">19.3</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">46 600<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">8650<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−23.6</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−72.6</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">49.0</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">26 800<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">13 000<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−31.8</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−86.4</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">54.6</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">54 228<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">12700<span><sup>e</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−30.5</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−115.3</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">84.8</td>
</tr>
<tr><td class="valign-top align-left">Polystyrene-<em>block</em>-poly(ethylene/propylene) copolymer<span><sup>f</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">146 000<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">49 800<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−43.0</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">−181</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">138</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">97 000<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">37 300<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−41.5</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">−141</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">100</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">110 000<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">31 500<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−41.7</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">−103</td>
<td class="valign-top align-left">61</td>
</tr>
<tr><td class="valign-top align-left">Poly(oxyethylene)<span> </span><em>n</em>-alkyl ethers<span><sup>h</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">1370<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">150<span><sup>g,i</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−24.6</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">10.9</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−35.5</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">1430<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">210<span><sup>g,i</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−26.8</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">16.9</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−43.7</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">1470<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">250<span><sup>g,i</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−28.8</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">24.5</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−53.3</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">1510<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">290<span><sup>g,i</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−30.2</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">32.0</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−62.2</td>
</tr>
<tr><td></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">1570<span><sup>g</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-center">350<span><sup>g,i</sup></span></td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−31.4</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">39.4</td>
<td class="valign-top align-char">−70.8</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<dl class="footnotes">
<dt id="t0015fn1">a</dt>
<dd><span>Standard states are ideally dilute with <em>c</em> = 1 mol dm<sup>−3</sup>.</span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn2">b</dt>
<dd><span>Overall average molecular weight of copolymer.</span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn3">c</dt>
<dd><span>Average molecular weight of polystyrene block.</span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn4">d</dt>
<dd><span>In hexadecane at <em>T</em> = 40 °C.<sup>154</sup></span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn5">e</dt>
<dd><span><em>M</em> = <em>M</em><sub>w</sub>.</span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn6">f</dt>
<dd><span>In decane at <em>T</em> = 80 °C.<sup>155</sup></span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn7">g</dt>
<dd><span><em>M</em> = <em>M</em><sub>w</sub>.</span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn8">h</dt>
<dd><span>In water at <em>T</em> = 35 °C.<sup>159</sup></span></dd>
<dt id="t0015fn9">i</dt>
<dd><span>Average molecular weight of <em>n</em>-alkyl block.</span></dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<p id="B9780080967011000434-p0500"><span>In contrast to the above behaviour, for synthetic <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/surface-active-agent" title="Learn more about surfactants from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">surfactants</a> in water including block copolymers, it is the entropy contribution to the <span class="topic-highlight">free energy</span> change which is the thermodynamic factor mainly responsible for micelle stability.</span><span><sup>159, 160</sup></span><span> </span>Results for the thermodynamics of micellization of poly(oxyethylene)<span> </span><em>n</em>-alkyl ethers (structural formula: MeO(CH<sub>2</sub>CH<sub>2</sub>O)<sub>27</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub><em>n</em></sub>H, where<span> </span><em>n</em> = 12, 14, 16, 18, 21) in water are given in<span> </span><span>Table 3</span>. Whilst a number of factors govern the overall magnitude of the entropy contribution, the fact that it is favourable to micelle formation arises largely from the structural changes<span><sup>161</sup></span><span> which occur in the water matrix when the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/hydrocarbon-chain" title="Learn more about hydrocarbon chains from ScienceDirect's AI-generated Topic Pages" class="topic-link">hydrocarbon chains</a> are withdrawn to form the micellar cores.</span></p>
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LINK: <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/free-energy">https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/free-energy</a> Solar Energy Global Statisticstag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2022-02-18:6363372:Topic:36136082022-02-18T10:37:05.346ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<p style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://storage.ning.com/topology/rest/1.0/file/get/10118997258?profile=original" rel="noopener" target="_blank"><img class="align-center" src="https://storage.ning.com/topology/rest/1.0/file/get/10118997258?profile=RESIZE_710x"></img></a> <a href="https://seedscientific.com/solar-energy-statistics/"></a></p>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="solar-energy-global-statistics" style="text-align: left;">Solar Energy Global Statistics</h3>
<h4 id="1-the-sun-sends-430-quintillion-joules-of-energy-to-earth-every-hour">1. The sun sends 430 quintillion Joules of energy…</h4>
<p style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://storage.ning.com/topology/rest/1.0/file/get/10118997258?profile=original" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img src="https://storage.ning.com/topology/rest/1.0/file/get/10118997258?profile=RESIZE_710x" class="align-center"/></a><a href="https://seedscientific.com/solar-energy-statistics/"></a></p>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="solar-energy-global-statistics" style="text-align: left;">Solar Energy Global Statistics</h3>
<h4 id="1-the-sun-sends-430-quintillion-joules-of-energy-to-earth-every-hour">1. The sun sends 430 quintillion Joules of energy to Earth every hour.</h4>
<p>(Business Insider)</p>
<p>To put things into perspective, all humans on the planet consume 410 quintillion Joules of energy every year. In other words, we receive considerably more clean energy from our nearest star in over 60 minutes than we can use in 365 days.</p>
<p>These basic solar energy facts should refute any doubt about the sun’s potential to power our rapidly growing industries.</p>
<h4 id="2-at-the-age-of-4-5-billion-the-sun-still-has-more-or-less-5-billion-years-left-in-its-life-span">2. At the age of 4.5 billion, the sun still has more or less 5 billion years left in its life span.</h4>
<p>(Live Science & Futurism)</p>
<p>Strictly speaking, this giant ball of fire will go out someday. But its longevity is irrelevant to us, as our very existence as a species could be decided in the next 100 years.</p>
<p>These quick facts about solar energy tell us that the sun is ages away from being on its last legs.</p>
<p>It is sustainable enough to buy us time to figure out the most efficient methods and develop the most effective machines to optimize its power.</p>
<h4 id="3-in-1941-isaac-asimov-popularized-the-idea-of-space-based-solar-power-projects-in-his-sci-fi-short-story-reason">3. In 1941, Isaac Asimov popularized the idea of space-based solar power projects in his sci-fi short story “Reason.”</h4>
<p>(CNBC, Goodreads, & Interesting Engineering)</p>
<p>Asimov’s brainchild is certainly one of the cool facts about solar energy in pop culture. Although NASA abandoned the idea decades ago, the China Academy of Space Technology plans to adopt it and build a solar station in space by 2035.</p>
<h4 id="4-giving-up-less-than-1-of-agricultural-land-for-solar-farming-could-suffice-to-satiate-the-world-s-appetite-for-electricity"><span id="4-giving-up-less-than-1-of-agricultural-land-for-solar-farming-could-suffice-to-satiate-the-worlds-appetite-for-electricity">4. Giving up less than 1% of agricultural land for solar farming could suffice to satiate the world’s appetite for electricity.</span></h4>
<p>(ScienceDaily)</p>
<p>Researchers at the Oregon State University discovered that croplands offer optimum conditions for solar energy generation using PV panels.</p>
<p>Called agrivoltaics, the idea of fusing agriculture and PV power production is one of the newest solar energy fun facts we should all be excited about.</p>
<h4 id="5-according-to-the-solar-panels-statistics-from-british-multinational-rs-80-of-the-world-s-100-biggest-cities-need-to-dedicate-less-than-10-of-their-land-area-for-solar-energy-generation"><span id="5-according-to-the-solar-panels-statistics-from-british-multinational-rs-80-of-the-worlds-100-biggest-cities-need-to-dedicate-less-than-10-of-their-land-area-for-solar-energy-generation">5. According to the solar panels statistics from British multinational RS, 80 of the world’s 100 biggest cities need to dedicate less than 10% of their land area for solar energy generation.</span></h4>
<p>(The Telegraph, RS, & USA Today)</p>
<p>For instance, Mumbai, the world’s most densely populated metropolis, has to allot 3.2% of its territory to lay down 19 kilometers of solar panels in order to satisfy the electricity consumption needs of its over 14.3 million inhabitants without emitting greenhouse gases.</p>
<h4 id="6-dubbed-the-sunniest-place-on-the-planet-yuma-arizona-enjoys-over-4-000-hours-of-sunlight-every-year"><span id="6-dubbed-the-sunniest-place-on-the-planet-yuma-arizona-enjoys-over-4000-hours-of-sunlight-every-year">6. Dubbed the sunniest place on the planet, Yuma, Arizona, enjoys over 4,000 hours of sunlight every year.</span></h4>
<p>(SeattlePI, The Telegraph, & RS)</p>
<p>In theory, Yuma could meet the electricity requirement of Paris, the world’s most power-hungry city, twice over. These solar energy facts and pieces of information underscore the adequacy of the sun’s power.</p>
<h4 id="7-36-years-of-weather-data-revealed-that-solar-energy-along-with-wind-could-supply-up-to-80-of-america-s-electricity-needs"><span id="7-36-years-of-weather-data-revealed-that-solar-energy-along-with-wind-could-supply-up-to-80-of-americas-electricity-needs">7. 36 years of weather data revealed that solar energy (along with wind) could supply up to 80% of America’s electricity needs.</span></h4>
<p>(The Guardian & U.S. Energy Information Administration)</p>
<p>The above solar and wind energy facts suggest that the US could wean itself off fossil fuels more realistically in the future if it makes enough effort to improve its storage infrastructure and mechanism.</p>
<h4 id="8-retrofitting-all-roads-in-the-continental-us-with-solar-panels-could-generate-enough-clean-electricity-to-meet-78-2-of-the-country-s-energy-needs"><span id="8-retrofitting-all-roads-in-the-continental-us-with-solar-panels-could-generate-enough-clean-electricity-to-meet-78-2-of-the-countrys-energy-needs">8. Retrofitting all roads in the continental US with solar panels could generate enough clean electricity to meet 78.2% of the country’s energy needs.</span></h4>
<p>(EnergySage)</p>
<p>It is one of those random facts about solar energy that could give environment-conscious Americans hope, but it is far from feasible.</p>
<p>Cost, safety, durability, efficiency, and reliability are some unaddressed concerns that plague the widespread construction of solar roadways in the US.</p>
<h4 id="9-territories-north-of-the-arctic-circle-could-become-solar-energy-factories-for-more-than-180-days-straight-due-to-midnight-sun">9. Territories north of the Arctic circle could become solar-energy factories for more than 180 days straight due to “midnight sun.”</h4>
<p>(SeattlePI & High North News)</p>
<p>This natural phenomenon happens because the Earth tilts 23° on its axis. Sure, the rest of the year would mean no sunlight at all.</p>
<p>But the ready availability of months worth of uninterrupted sunshine at the North Pole is one of the most underappreciated solar power and sustainable energy facts out there. </p>
<h4 id="10-one-panda-solar-power-farm-by-china-could-prevent-the-burning-of-1-06-million-tons-of-coal-and-the-emission-of-2-74-million-tons-of-greenhouse-gases-into-the-atmosphere-over-25-years">10. One panda solar power farm by China could prevent the burning of 1.06 million tons of coal and the emission of 2.74 million tons of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere over 25 years.</h4>
<p>(Reuters & Scientific American)</p>
<p>These compelling solar power statistics are proof that mainstream adoption of renewables is the best way to keep the global temperature from rising by 2 °C (aka the “climate danger threshold”) by 2036 or later.</p>
<h4 id="11-space-solar-power-is-available-for-the-taking-24-7">11. Space solar power is available for the taking 24/7.</h4>
<p>(National Space Society)</p>
<p>The current solar and wind energy statistics and liberal generation projections of renewables pale in comparison with the overall energy coming from the sun scattered in space.</p>
<p>One estimation explains that our planet catches just a small part of the star’s 2.3 billion solar power output.</p>
<p>These facts about the sun and solar energy would be the answer to many of the world’s most pressing industrial and environmental problems only if we could master the collection, electricity conversion, and distribution of space solar power.</p>
<div class="wp-block-image"><h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="the-feasibility-of-solar-power">The Feasibility of Solar Power</h3>
<h4 id="12-the-wattway-the-french-government-s-5-million-2-800-pv-panel-road-that-stretched-one-kilometer-going-to-a-small-normandy-town-was-deemed-an-absolute-disaster-three-years-after-installation"><span id="12-the-wattway-the-french-governments-e5-million-2800-pv-panel-road-that-stretched-one-kilometer-going-to-a-small-normandy-town-was-deemed-an-absolute-disaster-three-years-after-i">12. The Wattway, the French government’s €5-million 2,800–PV panel road that stretched one kilometer going to a small Normandy town, was deemed an absolute disaster three years after installation.</span></h4>
<p>(Popular Mechanics, Interesting Engineering, & ExtremeTech)</p>
<p>Roadways are perhaps one of the solar energy source facts that should have never been. Seen as a road to nowhere right from the get-go, the Wattway was built in 2016 despite the better judgment of experts.</p>
<p>It never achieved its power generation target of 790 kWh per day throughout its history. The Wattway’s most productive year was its maiden one that translated to 409 kWh of green electricity per day, solar energy facts and statistics say.</p>
<p>Its performance declined as its condition deteriorated due to excessive vehicle weight, unstoppable weather damage, and disappointing design failure, managing to produce just 200 kWh per day last year.</p>
<h4 id="13-in-2019-solar-energy-production-surpassed-consumption-in-the-us-for-the-first-time-since-1957">13. In 2019, solar energy production surpassed consumption in the US for the first time since 1957.</h4>
<p>(U.S. Energy Information Administration)</p>
<p>The year 2019 is remarkable for the energy sector in the US as the country’s solar energy production exceeded its consumption.</p>
<p>This was the first time in 62 years and certainly one of the fun facts for solar energy American environmental advocates would brag about.</p>
<h4 id="14-the-world-s-largest-solar-power-tower-is-a-2-2-billion-project-in-california-with-a-capacity-of-377-megawatts-only"><span id="14-the-worlds-largest-solar-power-tower-is-a-2-2-billion-project-in-california-with-a-capacity-of-377-megawatts-only">14. The world’s largest solar power tower is a $2.2-billion project in California with a capacity of 377 megawatts only.</span></h4>
<p>(Principia Scientific International, World Oil, & WIRED)</p>
<p>The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System’s underwhelming power-generating prowess (considering its cost) is not the only reason it has been a letdown.</p>
<p>The other interesting facts about this beacon of solar energy are roasting hapless birds in the air and bursting into flames due to an operational error.</p>
<h4 id="15-a-12-million-canadian-concentrated-solar-power-plant-shut-down-after-generating-just-one-megawatt-of-electricity">15. A $12-million Canadian concentrated solar power plant shut down after generating just one megawatt of electricity.</h4>
<p>(Power Technology)</p>
<p>The government of Medical Hat called it quits after the facility’s lack of profitability became too much to bear.</p>
<p>Even though the optimistic solar energy goals and other positive facts were ultimately not fulfilled, the solar thermal power project’s five-year run was not bad.</p>
<h4 id="16-india-s-push-for-40-gw-solar-rooftop-capacity-by-2022-is-a-flop-in-the-making"><span id="16-indias-push-for-40-gw-solar-rooftop-capacity-by-2022-is-a-flop-in-the-making">16. India’s push for 40 GW solar rooftop capacity by 2022 is a flop in the making.</span></h4>
<p>(Down to Earth & TaiyangNews)</p>
<p>The fast-growing South Asian economy is running out of time to present better solar energy information and facts.</p>
<p>By the end of March 2019, there were just 4,375 megawatts of rooftop solar PV panel systems installed. It’s a far cry from its double-digit goal.</p>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="the-dark-side-of-solar-power">The Dark Side of Solar Power</h3>
<h4 id="17-the-average-carbon-footprint-associated-with-the-production-of-solar-pv-panels-is-more-or-less-85-tons-of-carbon-dioxide-co2-equivalent-per-gwh">17. The average carbon footprint associated with the production of solar PV panels is more or less 85 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent per gWh.</h4>
<p>(EnergySage)</p>
<p>The facts about solar energy and its pros and cons change as the renewable’s adoption rate goes up. However, the truth remains that we still can’t manufacture PV panels without polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases.</p>
<h4 id="18-the-manufacture-of-solar-panels-also-produces-nf3-nitrogen-trifluoride-and-sf6-sulfur-hexafluoride">18. The manufacture of solar panels also produces NF3 (nitrogen trifluoride) and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride).</h4>
<p>(Intelizon)</p>
<p>Both NF3 and SF6 are potent greenhouse gases; the former is more hazardous than CO2 by over 17,000 times.</p>
<p>Some good facts about solar energy say such emissions can be trapped in production facilities. However, any large-scale breaches could change this narrative.</p>
<h4 id="19-4-1-is-the-ratio-between-poly-silicon-and-sicl4-silicon-tetrachloride"><span id="19-41-is-the-ratio-between-poly-silicon-and-sicl4-silicon-tetrachloride">19. 4:1 is the ratio between poly-silicon and SiCl4 (silicon tetrachloride).</span></h4>
<p>(TriplePundit)</p>
<p>The refinement process to create poly-silicon, an essential in the manufacture of solar panels, leads to the creation of large amounts of SiCl4, which can be a terrible hazard when it gets in contact with H2O.</p>
<p>The unintended production of this inorganic compound alone will not ruin the healthy balance between positive and negative facts about solar energy generation.</p>
<p>After all, SiCl4 can be made into more poly-silicon. Sadly, most manufacturing facilities lack the equipment needed to recycle this byproduct due to the high cost.</p>
<h4 id="20-thin-film-solar-cells-use-a-rare-material-called-copper-indium-gallium-selenide-cigs">20. Thin-film solar cells use a rare material called copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS).</h4>
<p>(Energy Informative, EnergySage, & ScienceDirect)</p>
<p>Compared to traditional units, one of the positive facts about solar energy generated by thin-film panels is less emission.</p>
<p>However, their production has resulted in high metal depletion of CIGS, which will worsen with poor end-of-life recovery.</p>
<h4 id="21-salvageable-metals-comprise-less-than-11-of-the-average-pv-panel">21. Salvageable metals comprise less than 11% of the average PV panel.</h4>
<p>(TriplePundit)</p>
<p><strong><a style="color: #61ce70;" href="https://seedscientific.com/recycling-statistics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Recycling stats</a></strong> suggest that low recyclability is one of the notable negative facts about solar energy generation. Such a small number will not make solar panel recycling lucrative enough to become its own industry, let alone thrive.</p>
<h4 id="22-apart-from-solar-energy-pollution-facts-intermittency-is-another-criticism-harming-the-reputation-of-the-sun-as-a-power-source">22. Apart from solar energy pollution facts, intermittency is another criticism harming the reputation of the sun as a power source.</h4>
<p>(MasterResource, Oilprice.com, & World Economic Forum)</p>
<p>So far, solar is not a realistic source of baseload power for massive economies such as the US and China.</p>
<p>That is one of the main reasons why only small countries like Costa Rica have been able to run exclusively renewable energy for a long period.</p>
<h4 id="23-solar-panels-retire-25-to-30-years-after-the-date-of-their-installation">23. Solar panels retire 25 to 30 years after the date of their installation.</h4>
<p>(EnergySage & Good Housekeeping)</p>
<p>These solar panels stats parallel the longevity of asphalt shingles. Such figures do not mean that these electricity-producing units become useless after three decades, though.</p>
<p>It is just that the solar power output of contemporary PV panels can significantly drop after that period.</p>
<h4 id="24-the-average-solar-panel-degradation-rate-is-0-8">24. The average solar panel degradation rate is 0.8%.</h4>
<p>(EnergySage)</p>
<p>After year 25, the typical solar panel will operate at just 82.5%. In comparison, a premium unit can produce about 87.5% of the amount of electricity it used to generate when it was first installed.</p>
<p>These solar energy stats are expected to improve in the years ahead with the advent of next-gen tech, but they hardly make contemporary PV panels more marketable.</p>
<img src="https://seedscientific.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/andreas-gucklhorn-Ilpf2eUPpUE-unsplash-1400x600.jpg" alt="solar energy statistics - solar energy panels" class="entered lazyloaded" width="1400" height="600"/><br/>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="the-state-of-solar-power">The State of Solar Power</h3>
<h4 id="25-the-cost-of-solar-panels-has-dropped-by-99-since-1977">25. The cost of solar panels has dropped by 99% since 1977.</h4>
<p>(The Motley Fool & Energy Informative)</p>
<p>Time has a way of dramatically changing solar energy facts and blurring this renewable’s pros and cons. Once considered a drawback, the price has been instrumental in making many solar projects more economically viable.</p>
<h4 id="26-55-of-the-world-s-new-renewable-energy-is-now-solar"><span id="26-55-of-the-worlds-new-renewable-energy-is-now-solar">26. 55% of the world’s new renewable energy is now solar.</span></h4>
<p>(The Guardian)</p>
<p>Most of these solar power installations are found in Asian countries led by China, Japan, South Korea, India, and Vietnam.</p>
<p>There were also significant increases in solar energy capacity seen in other locations, including the US, Germany, Australia, Ukraine, and Spain. </p>
<h4 id="27-in-2020-solar-energy-contributed-43-to-the-total-new-electric-capacity">27. In 2020, solar energy contributed 43% to the total new electric capacity.</h4>
<p>(SEIA)</p>
<p>This was the second year in a row that solar energy’s capacity contribution to the grid was the highest, reaching 43%. Meanwhile, the runner-up wind energy contributed 38% as shown by the solar energy vs. wind energy facts.</p>
<p>In 2010, solar energy’s share of the US total electric generation was only 0.1%. Today, it has gone up to over 3%.</p>
<h4 id="28-asia-was-the-driver-of-about-70-of-the-uptick-in-the-world-s-solar-power-capacity-in-2018"><span id="28-asia-was-the-driver-of-about-70-of-the-uptick-in-the-worlds-solar-power-capacity-in-2018">28. Asia was the driver of about 70% of the uptick in the world’s solar power capacity in 2018.</span></h4>
<p>(International Renewable Energy Agency)</p>
<p>China, India, Japan, and South Korea deserve the credit for most of the improvement in global solar energy that year.</p>
<h4 id="29-in-2019-the-demand-for-solar-panels-was-perceived-to-reach-125-5-gigawatts">29. In 2019, the demand for solar panels was perceived to reach 125.5 gigawatts.</h4>
<p>(PV Magazine)</p>
<p>An increase of 16%, year on year means that a greater appetite for renewables was among the noteworthy facts about solar energy usage forecast in the previous year.</p>
<h4 id="30-last-year-the-energy-payback-time-of-pv-systems-in-southern-europe-was-down-to-1-5-years-or-less">30. Last year, the energy payback time of PV systems in Southern Europe was down to 1.5 years or less.</h4>
<p>(Fraunhofer ISE)</p>
<p>In other words, the PV solar panels installed in this region could generate enough clean energy to negate the power needed to manufacture them and offset many other incidental bad facts about solar energy production in just 18 months at most.</p>
<h4 id="31-80-of-the-price-of-a-rooftop-solar-panel-system-in-the-us-could-be-recouped-at-resale">31. 80% of the price of a rooftop solar panel system in the US could be recouped at resale.</h4>
<p>(Modernize & ActiveRain)</p>
<p>There was a time when PV panels hurting curb appeal was one of the unspoken facts on solar energy in the real estate industry.</p>
<p>Now, these rooftop electricity-producing units help sell listed properties 20% more quickly, on average.</p>
<h4 id="32-in-2019-elon-musk-announced-that-tesla-solarglass-roof-version-3-was-ready-for-the-big-league">32. In 2019, Elon Musk announced that Tesla solarglass roof version 3 was ready for the big league.</h4>
<p>(PV Magazine)</p>
<p>One of the most interesting facts about solar energy in 2019 came from the visionary when he announced his company would mass-produce these game-changing roofs and manufacture 1,000 per week by December last year.</p>
<p>While the unofficial number of Tesla’s PV roofs in the wild was less than 100, the figure could explode and shake up the roofing industry in the near future, as the company targets an installation time of just eight hours.</p>
<h4 id="33-the-maldives-became-home-to-the-largest-floating-solar-system-in-2019">33. The Maldives became home to the largest “floating solar system” in 2019.</h4>
<p>(Travel Daily)</p>
<p>The construction of this structure alone redefines some interesting facts about solar energy generation.</p>
<p>But what makes it more special is the patented design that allows it to withstand the rigors of corrosive saltwater, turbulent waves, and destructive storms.</p>
<h4 id="34-by-2019-the-us-had-produced-a-grand-total-of-17-468-342-mwh-of-solar-energy"><span id="34-by-2019-the-us-had-produced-a-grand-total-of-17468342-mwh-of-solar-energy">34. By 2019, the US had produced a grand total of 17,468,342 mWh of solar energy.</span></h4>
<p>(SolarFeeds)</p>
<p>The country has established many solar energy history facts, as it’s been in the game since 1983.</p>
<h4 id="35-in-2019-net-metering-was-embraced-in-at-least-43-us-states-along-with-the-district-of-columbia">35. In 2019, net metering was embraced in at least 43 US states, along with the District of Columbia.</h4>
<p>(EnergySage & InsideClimate News)</p>
<p>This is one of those facts about solar energy in America that involves a gray area.</p>
<p>While most of the country incentivizes households that go solar, some state legislators reduce the reward for generating excessive clean power.</p>
<p>Moreover, not all utilities in Idaho and Texas have adopted net metering since doing, as it’s not yet mandatory.</p>
<h4 id="36-by-2021-the-total-solar-pv-installations-in-the-us-per-year-could-reach-15-8-gw">36. By 2021, the total solar PV installations in the US per year could reach 15.8 GW.</h4>
<p>(SolarFeeds)</p>
<p>In 2019, the country’s PV power installation capacity was estimated to jump by 14%, sustaining the upward trajectory of certain solar energy statistics of the United States.</p>
<p>It’s also expected that the total installations per year could reach 15.8 GW in 2021.</p>
<h4 id="37-the-value-of-the-us-energy-storage-market-is-expected-to-hit-2-5-billion-as-it-reaches-1-7-gw-by-2020">37. The value of the US energy storage market is expected to hit $2.5 billion as it reaches 1.7 GW by 2020.</h4>
<p>(Greentech Media & EnergySage)</p>
<p>Compared to the valuation in 2015 (the year when energy storage truly began making inroads), the number translates to 243% growth.</p>
<p>This suggests that solar energy usage in the US is becoming more efficient.</p>
<p>More and more homeowners, as well as grid managers and utilities, are able to handle the flow of electricity from renewables without causing an imbalance between the demand and supply of power.</p>
<h4 id="38-over-2-million-houses-in-the-us-have-their-own-rooftop-solar-panel-systems">38. Over 2 million houses in the US have their own rooftop solar panel systems.</h4>
<p>(PV Magazine)</p>
<p>Based on the solar panel statistics, the number of houses with solar panels in the US has surpassed the two million mark in just three years.</p>
<p>It can be considered an achievement since reaching one million installations took 40 years for the country to accomplish.</p>
<p>Moreover, it is expected that by the end of 2021, there will be more than three million solar installations completed.</p>
<h4 id="39-hawaii-has-the-highest-percentage-of-solar-powered-homes-in-the-us-accounting-for-6-282">39. Hawaii has the highest percentage of solar-powered homes in the US, accounting for 6.282%.</h4>
<p>(PV Magazine)</p>
<p>In terms of the cities with the most number of solar-powered homes in the US, solar power stats show Hawaii tops the list.</p>
<p>Out of its 20,199 total housing units, 1,269 have solar power installations. This accounts for a 6.282% contribution to the city’s solar power generation capacity.</p>
<h4 id="40-experts-counted-more-than-2-5-million-rooftop-solar-panel-installations-in-australia">40. Experts counted more than 2.5 million rooftop solar panel installations in Australia.</h4>
<p>(Clean Energy Council)</p>
<p>So, how many people use solar energy in the Land Down Under? According to the latest from the Clean Energy Council, more than 2.5 million households across Australia have solar installations.</p>
<p>In 2019, rooftop solar installations reached 287,504, which is the highest since 2012.</p>
<h4 id="41-two-years-ago-a-polish-developer-made-history-by-integrating-perovskite-solar-cells-into-the-facade-of-its-commercial-space-to-take-a-huge-step-closer-toward-carbon-neutrality">41. Two years ago, a Polish developer made history by integrating perovskite solar cells into the facade of its commercial space to take a huge step closer toward carbon neutrality.</h4>
<p>(Forbes, Building Design & Construction, & Chemistry World)</p>
<p>Declaring this milestone as one of the most interesting facts on solar energy recently does not do it justice.</p>
<p>In fact, we’d go as far as to say that it could signal a tectonic shift in building design and construction philosophies in hopes of developing zero-energy structures.</p>
<p>Speaking of <strong><a style="color: #61ce70;" href="https://seedscientific.com/green-building-statistics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">green buildings</a></strong>, the Pixel Building in Melbourne is considered the most sustainable structure in the world. It produces all its water and power on-site, making it Australia’s primary carbon-neutral service building.</p>
<h4 id="42-china-contributed-48-2-gw-of-new-solar-capacity-in-2020">42. China contributed 48.2 GW of new solar capacity in 2020.</h4>
<p>(PV Magazine)</p>
<p>The country’s PV production was greater than India’s nearly five-fold last year. Thanks to China’s consistently solid green electricity production, the world’s solar energy growth projections are bright.</p>
<h4 id="43-in-2019-china-recorded-the-highest-solar-capacity-among-all-countries-with-204-gw">43. In 2019, China recorded the highest solar capacity among all countries, with 204 GW.</h4>
<p>(Statista)</p>
<p>China tops the list of countries producing the highest solar capacity, recording a cumulative solar PV of 204 GW in 2019. Aside from China, other major markets for solar PV installations are the United States, Germany, and Japan.</p>
<h4 id="44-in-2017-the-world-s-first-panda-power-plant-came-online"><span id="44-in-2017-the-worlds-first-panda-power-plant-came-online">44. In 2017, the world’s first panda power plant came online.</span></h4>
<p>(China Merchants New Energy & Reuters)</p>
<p>The Datong panda-shaped solar farm could generate about 3.2 billion kWh of green electricity over 25 years, which is good enough to supply power to 10,000 households yearly.</p>
<p>The facility’s inauguration marked the initial implementation of China’s “Panda 100 Program.”</p>
<p>Through it, the country plans to build 100 solar power stations shaped like the iconic Chinese bear in countries part of the $900 billion Belt and Road Initiative also known as the new Silk Road.</p>
<p>Apart from elevating its solar energy stats, China could also earn brownie points in diplomacy and geopolitics with the Panda 100 Program.</p>
<h4 id="45-china-s-166-000-panel-floating-solar-farm-in-huainan-is-the-largest-of-its-kind"><span id="45-chinas-166000-panel-floating-solar-farm-in-huainan-is-the-largest-of-its-kind">45. China’s 166,000-panel floating solar farm in Huainan is the largest of its kind.</span></h4>
<p>(TIME & World Economic Forum)</p>
<p>Arranged on the surface of a lake formed atop an abandoned coal mine, this massive facility produces nearly enough green electricity to meet the energy needs of a large town.</p>
<p>Although the floating farm’s production is just a fraction of China’s total solar energy statistics in 2019, it is another piece of evidence of the country’s attempt to push the envelope.</p>
<h4 id="46-two-of-the-major-solar-arrays-on-water-in-the-world-are-in-japan">46. Two of the major solar arrays on water in the world are in Japan.</h4>
<p>(NS Energy & Smithsonian magazine)</p>
<p>The first is the Yamakura solar power farm, which floats on its namesake Yamakura Dam and has a capacity of 13.7 MW. The second is the 7.5 MW Umenoki solar power plant, which was constructed on an irrigation pond in Higashimatsuyama.</p>
<p>These fun facts about solar energy are a testament to Japanese ingenuity.</p>
<p>This was a creative and resourceful response to the country’s lack of terrestrial space to accommodate massive solar farms to generate clean electricity.</p>
<p>Also, to make up for what it could no longer produce since the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster.</p>
<h4 id="47-japan-has-converted-at-least-three-of-its-forgotten-golf-courses-into-green-electricity-producing-solar-fields-since-2015">47. Japan has converted at least three of its forgotten golf courses into green electricity-producing solar fields since 2015.</h4>
<p>(ReThink Tokyo, Posibl., Investopedia, & The Diplomat)</p>
<p>By global standards, the East Asian country’s solar energy facts and stats are to be envied.</p>
<p>However, the Land of the Rising Sun is burdened to multiply its production of renewables in order to see its energy self-sufficiency rate bottom out sooner rather than later.</p>
<p>This way, it could finally recover from its ongoing power crisis.</p>
<h4 id="48-solaroad-a-dutch-solar-bike-path-produced-3-000-kwh-to-beat-its-annual-power-generation-goal"><span id="48-solaroad-a-dutch-solar-bike-path-produced-3000-kwh-to-beat-its-annual-power-generation-goal">48. SolaRoad, a Dutch solar bike path, produced 3,000 kWh to beat its annual power generation goal.</span></h4>
<p>(Futurism & Nature World News)</p>
<p>Just half a year after its inauguration, the 70-meter bike path with thin-film solar PV panels turned sunshine into 9,800 kWh, which was good enough to power three households in the Netherlands for 365 days.</p>
<p>The project may have produced valuable pieces of solar energy information and historic facts, keeping the idea of solar roads alive.</p>
<div class="wp-block-image"><img src="https://seedscientific.com/wp-content/uploads/elementor/thumbs/stockvault-solar-energy-system-illustration263641-scaled-okhksgwlbo7gv2wwgw6vz7hzoep4bb3ygmfxeqn1aw.jpg" alt="solar energy statistics - solar energy system" title="solar energy statistics – solar energy system" class="entered lazyloaded" width="1020" height="599"/></div>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="the-economics-of-solar-power">The Economics of Solar Power</h3>
<h4 id="49-in-june-2016-the-uae-became-the-first-country-to-bring-down-unsubsidized-solar-energy-price-below-30-per-kwh"><span id="49-in-june-2016-the-uae-became-the-first-country-to-bring-down-unsubsidized-solar-energy-price-below-30%ef%bf%a0-per-kwh">49. In June 2016, the UAE became the first country to bring down unsubsidized solar energy price below 30¢ per kWh.</span></h4>
<p>(Nature Research & Forbes)</p>
<p>One of the many amazing facts on solar energy associated with the UAE, this feat was achieved by the Middle-Eastern nation during the 800 MW third phase of Dubai’s Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (MBR) Solar Park when the price was set at 2.99¢ per kWh.</p>
<h4 id="50-in-july-2019-portugal-had-rewritten-the-top-solar-energy-economics-facts-and-earned-the-distinction-of-offering-the-cheapest-pv-power-in-the-world">50. In July 2019, Portugal had rewritten the top solar energy economics facts and earned the distinction of offering the cheapest PV power in the world.</h4>
<p>(Forbes & EURACTIV)</p>
<p>The Southern European country had snatched the title from a fellow Portuguese-speaking country, Brazil, after auctioning 1,150 megawatts of solar energy.</p>
<p>One of the contracts had been awarded to Direcção-Geral de Energia e Geologia, which agreed to offer 150MW for €0.01476 per kWh ($0.01654).</p>
<p>The Portuguese authorities should not rest on their laurels, though.</p>
<p>Over the past few years, the solar energy world statistics have been changing quickly as more and more countries achieve advancements in PV production.</p>
<h4 id="51-based-on-the-independent-power-producer-model-the-uae-had-become-the-source-of-the-lowest-priced-solar-energy-at-1-69-in-october-2019"><span id="51-based-on-the-independent-power-producer-model-the-uae-had-become-the-source-of-the-lowest-priced-solar-energy-at-1-69%ef%bf%a0-in-october-2019">51. Based on the independent power producer model, the UAE had become the source of the lowest-priced solar energy at 1.69¢ in October 2019.</span></h4>
<p>(Forbes & Emirates News Agency)</p>
<p>The Dubai Electricity and Water Authority, a government-owned utility, had received the bid for the 900 MW fifth phase of the MBR Solar Park. The phase should be operational in stages as of Q2 2021. </p>
<p>Although this price was not good enough to beat Portugal’s, it nevertheless reinforces UAE’s position as a global leader in cheap solar PV production after tallying previous record-setting solar energy industry facts since 2015.</p>
<h4 id="52-india-offered-the-most-affordable-solar-power-in-2018">52. India offered the most affordable solar power in 2018.</h4>
<p>(World Economic Forum)</p>
<p>The South Asian country’s statistics for solar energy considerably improved that year due to cheap Chinese panel imports, low-cost labor, and abundant land.</p>
<h4 id="53-the-cost-of-building-large-scale-solar-structures-in-india-dropped-by-27-in-2018">53. The cost of building large-scale solar structures in India dropped by 27% in 2018.</h4>
<p>(World Economic Forum)</p>
<p>Compared to Canada’s statistics about solar energy farm costs in the same year, India’s were thrice lower.</p>
<h4 id="54-a-2019-study-revealed-solar-power-is-now-cheaper-than-grid-electricity-in-all-chinese-cities">54. A 2019 study revealed solar power is now cheaper than grid electricity in all Chinese cities.</h4>
<p>(Carbon Brief)</p>
<p>China has leapfrogged developed countries and achieved grid parity decades earlier than expected. Other papers concluded that the US and Germany could replicate such an achievement by 2020.</p>
<p>It is certainly one of the key solar energy statistics that demonstrates which nation is winning the race for PV power production.</p>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="the-future-of-solar-power">The Future of Solar Power</h3>
<h4 id="55-by-2050-the-majority-of-the-world-could-run-exclusively-on-renewables-particularly-solar-power">55. By 2050, the majority of the world could run exclusively on renewables, particularly solar power.</h4>
<p>(World Economic Forum)</p>
<p>Solar and wind power technologies could supply up to 94.7% of the planet’s energy needs by then. In other words, most countries on Earth could end their dependence on fossil fuels in 30 years.</p>
<p>If these projections become actual solar energy facts and info, the target of the Paris Climate Change Agreement would be met, and 4.6 million people would not die due to air pollution every year.</p>
<h4 id="56-the-supply-of-global-solar-energy-would-have-an-additional-600-gw-over-the-next-5-years">56. The supply of global solar energy would have an additional 600 GW over the next 5 years.</h4>
<p>(The Guardian)</p>
<p>Such a growth forecast is faster than the expansion of all capacities of renewables worldwide during the same period. Indeed, it is among the rosiest and most important facts about solar energy published so far.</p>
<h4 id="57-by-2024-china-s-total-solar-power-capacity-will-reach-370-gw"><span id="57-by-2024-chinas-total-solar-power-capacity-will-reach-370-gw">57. By 2024, China’s total solar power capacity will reach 370 GW.</span></h4>
<p>(World Economic Forum & Carbon Brief)</p>
<p>Based on this figure, the Asian powerhouse will lead the US, the first country in the rearview mirror, by a margin of over 100%.</p>
<p>Experiencing meteoric solar industry growth since 2001, China is riding on its momentum to maintain its position as the world’s number one solar energy producer and installer of PV panels in the foreseeable future.</p>
<h4 id="58-in-2021-the-us-is-projected-to-have-15-8-gw-of-new-pv-panel-installations">58. In 2021, the US is projected to have 15.8 GW of new PV panel installations.</h4>
<p>(Renewable Energy World)</p>
<p>The current largest economy in the world can’t rival China’s solar power capacity. But this projection solidifies the notion that America is a solar superpower in its own right.</p>
<h4 id="59-in-all-probability-the-us-will-install-3-million-pv-panels-in-2021-and-4-million-units-in-2023">59. In all probability, the US will install 3 million PV panels in 2021 and 4 million units in 2023.</h4>
<p>(SolarFeeds & Renewable Energy World)</p>
<p>The North American nation is no longer just relying on the top five contributors to its solar energy production statistics since 2010: California, Arizona, New York, New Jersey, and Massachusetts.</p>
<p>Texas and Florida, two emerging solar markets in the States, are expected to drive up the percentage of solar power in the US energy mix in the coming years.</p>
<h4 id="60-production-of-the-german-solar-powered-car-sion-commences-in-the-second-half-of-2020-in-sweden">60. Production of the German solar-powered car Sion commences in the second half of 2020 in Sweden.</h4>
<p>(Inverse & InsideEVs)</p>
<p>If things go as planned, the electric vehicle’s manufacturer Sono Motors will be able to assemble 43,000 units per year.</p>
<p>One of the car’s other promising solar panel energy generation facts is its potential to convert enough electricity to boost its 255 kilometers (nearly 160 miles) of range by 34 kilometers (more than 20 miles) per day while on the road.</p>
<h4 id="61-the-first-long-range-fully-solar-powered-car-lightyear-one-will-hit-production-lines-in-2021">61. The first long-range fully solar-powered car Lightyear One will hit production lines in 2021.</h4>
<p>(Business Insider)</p>
<p>Apart from its capability to power itself with solar energy, other interesting facts about it include its ability to have more or less 800 kilometers (or about 500 miles) of range on a single charge.</p>
<p>Also, it’s fast charging and guarantees over 400 kilometers (nearly 250 miles) of range under unfavorable environmental conditions.</p>
<h4 id="62-by-2050-china-targets-to-be-the-first-nation-to-collect-space-solar-power-and-send-it-to-earth-wirelessly">62. By 2050, China targets to be the first nation to collect space solar power and send it to Earth wirelessly.</h4>
<p>(NBC News Digital)</p>
<p>John Mankins, the physicist who explored the idea for NASA in the 1990s to no avail, estimates that a solar farm in orbit could generate 2,000 GW of power steadily.</p>
<p>Such an output dwarfs the best stats on solar energy generation of today’s largest comparative terrestrial facilities, with outputs ranging around measly 1.8 GW.</p>
<h4 id="63-emerging-solar-power-tech-can-cut-spaceship-weight-by-50-and-reduce-the-space-occupied-by-energy-storage-components-by-75">63. Emerging solar-power tech can cut spaceship weight by 50% and reduce the space occupied by energy-storage components by 75%.</h4>
<p>(Machine Design)</p>
<p>According to these <strong><a style="color: #61ce70;" href="https://seedscientific.com/space-exploration-statistics/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">space exploration statistics</a></strong>, NASA’s Solar Electric Propulsion (SEP) system could take solar energy efficiency facts to new heights.</p>
<p>This innovation will be a part of the lightweight, low-fuel solar-powered rocket ship the agency intends to launch within the decade.</p>
<p>SEP-equipped ships will decrease propellant usage tenfold and accelerate the deliveries to space stations in the future.</p>
<p>This technology would not only improve statistics on solar energy but also pave the way for speedy and affordable space commutes within our solar system.</p>
<h4 id="64-futuristic-clothes-could-charge-electronics-using-mini-solar-cells">64. Futuristic clothes could charge electronics using mini solar cells.</h4>
<p>(Forbes & Power Technology)</p>
<p>Wearable sun-charged fashion items as general facts about solar energy might sound unfathomable now, but they could become the norm before too long.</p>
<p>Researchers at Nottingham Trent University have developed flea-sized solar cells, woven them into textiles, and proven to charge a smartphone with them.</p>
<h3 class="has-text-align-center" id="final-notes">Final Notes</h3>
<p>Curiously, the provenance of the energy in fossil fuels is the sun. In a manner of speaking, we have been harnessing solar power all along. </p>
<p>As humankind develops more sophisticated machines and methods to make clean electricity using the generous yellow dwarf star in Earth’s backyard, the rising solar energy statistics of the world signify a radiant future for civilization and hope for posterity.</p>
<div class="wp-container-620edd3289c39 wp-block-group box has-base-2-background-color has-background"><div class="wp-block-group__inner-container"><div class="schema-faq wp-block-yoast-faq-block"><div class="schema-faq-section" id="faq-question-1638368886925"><p class="schema-faq-answer"><br/> Only a little over 2% of the world’s electricity came from solar power in 2019.</p>
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<a href="https://seedscientific.com/solar-energy-statistics">https://seedscientific.com/solar-energy-statistics</a><img src="https://seedscientific.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/solar-system-2939551_1280-1280x600.jpg" alt="solar energy statistics - solar panels" class="entered lazyloaded" width="1020" height="478"/></div> Exposed: cells’ sugary secretstag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-03-25:6363372:Topic:35081832020-03-25T04:15:19.659ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<p><br></br> <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00769-z">https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00769-z</a></p>
<p>Just 22 amino acids are all that’s needed to make all the world’s proteins. Four nucleotide bases encode biology’s blueprints in DNA. But when it comes to another, equally crucial, class of biomolecules called glycans, scientists don’t even know if there is an equivalent alphabet that the cell uses to make them, says bioinformaticist Jaya Srivastava of the Indian…</p>
<p><br/> <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00769-z">https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00769-z</a></p>
<p>Just 22 amino acids are all that’s needed to make all the world’s proteins. Four nucleotide bases encode biology’s blueprints in DNA. But when it comes to another, equally crucial, class of biomolecules called glycans, scientists don’t even know if there is an equivalent alphabet that the cell uses to make them, says bioinformaticist Jaya Srivastava of the Indian Institute of Technology in Mumbai.</p>
<p>Glycans are sugar-based polymers that coat cells and decorate most proteins, forming glycoproteins. They are crucial for biological processes such as immune regulation and intercellular interactions. This makes the apparent lack of a glycan alphabet<sup><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-00769-z#ref-CR1">1</a></sup> surprising, and reflects an enduring issue: just how little scientists know about sugars.</p>
<p>More than 30 years ago, chemist Carolyn Bertozzi was astounded by the paucity of chemical information about glycoproteins. At least half of all mammalian proteins are glycosylated — meaning they have at least one glycan attached. Without the correct sugary suffixes, proteins misfold or become unstable or non-functional. “The biological importance of glycans was well established by the 1980s,” says Bertozzi, now at Stanford University in California. “But it was very hard for biologists to answer any questions in glycoscience, because they didn’t have the tools.”</p>
<p>Proteins and DNA could easily be manipulated in the lab, but that wasn’t true of glycans. As a result, studies of sugars have lagged behind research into other macromolecules. This is in part because glycans are not synthesized using any known template, and because they can change dynamically depending on a cell’s metabolic state. What’s more, sugar isomers — molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures — can be used to build varied glycans, but are almost impossible to tell apart on the basis of molecular weight alone.</p>
<p>In 2015, the US National Institutes of Health established the Common Fund Glycoscience programme to develop overarching technologies for studying glycans in biomedicine. At the time, researchers identified a lack of tools as the greatest hurdle in glycobiology. Now, they’re beginning to address it.</p>
<p><a href="https://www.nature.com/collections/fxvqrpnlcq">NatureTech hub</a></p>
<p>Bertozzi and others have pioneered methods to image glycans in living or fixed tissues. Thanks to improvements in mass spectrometry and Raman spectroscopy, researchers can more easily identify and characterize glycoproteins. Several scientists, including Srivastava, are developing open databases — such as UniCarbKB, GlyTouCan and the Glycan Mass Spectral Database — that can be used to identify sugars and common glycosylation sites on proteins. Others have focused on high-throughput techniques, including arrays that capture data from hundreds of glycans or glycoproteins at once.</p>
<p>“Things that used to take an entire PhD can now be done in a matter of weeks,” Bertozzi says. “To me, this feels like an inflection point for the field.”</p>
<p><strong>Sugar spotting</strong></p>
<p>When Bertozzi set up her first lab at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1996, she began to work on a fundamental tool: a way to visualize a sugar on a cell, in the same way that proteins can be tagged with a fluorescent marker and picked out under a microscope.</p>
<p>The technique she developed, now widely used, is known as bio-orthogonal chemistry. It relies on marking sugars with a small, biologically unreactive chemical group that can slip undetected past the enzymes that attach glycans to proteins. Once this tagged sugar has been incorporated into a complex glycan and draped over a protein, a fluorescent dye can be snapped onto that chemical group in the cell, allowing the glycan to be visualized under a microscope.</p>
<p>“The key was that we needed to find two functional groups that would react with each other, but neither would react with anything else in the body,” says Bertozzi. This ‘bio-orthogonality’ is what counts: “They need to be chemically invisible in the biological world.” She and her colleagues have applied bio-orthogonal tools to identify glycoproteins that are unusually abundant in, or unique to, prostate-cancer tissues; used them to track where cells with different surface glycoproteins migrate in the zebrafish jaw during development; and more.</p> Cas13tag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-03-05:6363372:Topic:35019002020-03-05T04:14:58.753ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<p>Researchers harness Cas13 as an antiviral agent and diagnostic tool for RNA-based viruses<br></br> <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/10/researchers-can-program-a-crispr-enzyme-to-kill-viruses-in-human-cells/">https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/10/researchers-can-program-a-crispr-enzyme-to-kill-viruses-in-human-cells/</a></p>
<p>The need for new antiviral approaches is urgent. In the past 50 years, 90 clinically approved antiviral drugs have been produced, but they…</p>
<p>Researchers harness Cas13 as an antiviral agent and diagnostic tool for RNA-based viruses<br/> <a href="https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/10/researchers-can-program-a-crispr-enzyme-to-kill-viruses-in-human-cells/">https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2019/10/researchers-can-program-a-crispr-enzyme-to-kill-viruses-in-human-cells/</a></p>
<p>The need for new antiviral approaches is urgent. In the past 50 years, 90 clinically approved antiviral drugs have been produced, but they treat only nine diseases — and viral pathogens can rapidly evolve resistance to treatment. Only 16 viruses have FDA-approved vaccines.</p>
<p>To explore new antiviral strategies, the team focused on Cas13, which naturally targets viral RNA in bacteria. The enzyme can be programmed to target specific sequences of RNA with few limitations, is relatively easy to get into cells, and has been well-studied in mammalian cells by researchers including Broad Institute core member <a href="https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__u7061146.ct.sendgrid.net_wf_click-3Fupn-3DG62jSYfZdO-2D2F12d8lSllQB7c9jCK06EquTzMb2VqMM9COGHqm3PEjNzjZRE3N9y-2D2B1-5FWp9g321Y1jBI65M5YaO7tpmEfZzyA4qKB9iXu4tzDT5XB4X6UFE8EackAs8tlFXyzzs9h1Z-2D2BvMi3-2D2FbpoOQTjjv77-2D2F1i2H-2D2B-2D2BNzZTMKk-2D2Bv6MLm2P1iOgqyI-2D2BFLgpCHWWqI5QfV0-2D2Beczz-2D2FaDsgZGYNF170m54l3yWuFZxun3vDXVjiH9NXfPJuiXRneA3ixGMT-2D2B3bK59qWTfS5K6WLYJ9hW0coZbplOgZhFW-2D2FLjygRoRwYkqaL0LSJt3tetUjaRzRecJeq-2D2BFAxYADnTt21w8TEgnCOtMyh1GUcvrZakzdZgv1ZRcCzKoDWKcWDF4KZ5WyqpD2kT4vkghorbCv0QJrrwhSxmzxCvitkq8m-2D2BW7XaqsGU-2D3D&d=DwMFaQ&c=WO-RGvefibhHBZq3fL85hQ&r=DnS34uF8FMox2vVhGrzlX28MWrSDyn-iGaJF58zdbu4&m=un4XMN063_s5GLSau2kXw3M6ylOHz72zdYmW7Dx5VXo&s=Dxhw8q9x32TE4fcEOwrZEL6_d3h6-bF1igNA6Fts4Mo&e=">Feng Zhang</a>.</p>
<p>The team first screened a suite of RNA-based viruses in search of viral RNA sequences that Cas13 could efficiently target. They primarily looked for pieces that are both least likely to mutate and most likely, when cut, to disable a virus.</p>
<p>“In theory, you could program Cas13 to attack virtually any part of a virus,” explained Myhrvold. “But there’s huge diversity within and among species, and much of the genome changes rapidly as a virus evolves. If you’re not careful, you could be going after a target that will ultimately have no effect.”</p>
<p>The researchers computationally identified thousands of sites, in hundreds of viral species, which could be effective targets for Cas13.</p>
<p><strong>Three-in-one system</strong></p>
<p>With a list of potential viral RNA targets in hand, the team could then program Cas13 to seek out and cut any of these nucleic acid sequences by engineering the enzyme’s guide RNA.</p>
<p>The researchers experimentally tested Cas13’s activity in human cells infected with one of three distinct RNA-based viruses: lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), influenza A virus (IAV), and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV). They introduced the Cas13 gene and an engineered guide RNA into the cells, and 24 hours later, exposed the cells to the virus. After another 24 hours, the Cas13 enzymes had reduced the level of viral RNA in the cell cultures by up to 40-fold.</p>
<p>The team further explored Cas13’s effect on virus infectivity — in other words, how much of the remaining virus could actually continue to infect human cells. The data indicated that eight hours after viral exposure, Cas13 had reduced the infectivity of the flu virus by more than 300-fold.</p>
<p>To add a diagnostic component, the researchers also incorporated the Cas13-based nucleic acid detection technology <a href="https://urldefense.proofpoint.com/v2/url?u=https-3A__u7061146.ct.sendgrid.net_wf_click-3Fupn-3DG62jSYfZdO-2D2F12d8lSllQB7c9jCK06EquTzMb2VqMM9A4QGDliUA7WpI-2D2Bx2O6KYDNMgiOHxA7NsETqgFf7xRBFQ-2D3D-2D3D-5FWp9g321Y1jBI65M5YaO7tpmEfZzyA4qKB9iXu4tzDT5XB4X6UFE8EackAs8tlFXyzzs9h1Z-2D2BvMi3-2D2FbpoOQTjjv77-2D2F1i2H-2D2B-2D2BNzZTMKk-2D2Bv6MLm2P1iOgqyI-2D2BFLgpCHWWqI5QfV0-2D2Beczz-2D2FaDsgZGYNF170m54l3yWuFZxun3vDXVjiH9NXfPJuiXRneA3ixGMT-2D2B3bK59qWTfS5K6WLYJ9hW0XMo4-2D2B-2D2FxKlpvMIhW2G8xcWrJeWFRv6YxJKmqD3BgNKxQrLzW9dA4m8mCu5IuwEnjgP0nyen4beU2wodvHjdr7eoTjajw2gXskoCK95QhjAOEiyk9Yc9u-2D2Fft-2D2Bmw58UvhjULeWRI7fekzatWD7VNn2L2c-2D3D&d=DwMFaQ&c=WO-RGvefibhHBZq3fL85hQ&r=DnS34uF8FMox2vVhGrzlX28MWrSDyn-iGaJF58zdbu4&m=un4XMN063_s5GLSau2kXw3M6ylOHz72zdYmW7Dx5VXo&s=opfU7Zj_JhJSGzNYO-E4wmHX6pqEPBdjKjiZlhz_H5s&e=">SHERLOCK</a>. The resulting CARVER system could rapidly measure the remaining levels of viral RNA in a sample.</p>
<p> </p> NEWLY INVENTED SHOES WITH GPS TO TRACK ELDERLY FAMILY MEMBERS WITH ALZHEIMER’S AND PREVENT THEM FROM GETTING LOST!tag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-01-11:6363372:Topic:34891192020-01-11T06:53:32.658ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<h1 style="text-align: center;">NEWLY INVENTED SHOES WITH GPS TO TRACK ELDERLY FAMILY MEMBERS WITH ALZHEIMER’S AND PREVENT THEM FROM GETTING LOST!</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="img" src="https://healthylifeboxx.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Newly-Invented-Shoes-With-GPS-to-Track-Elderly-Family-Members-With-Alzheimers-and-Prevent-Them-From-Getting-Lost-653x393.jpg"></img></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">The initial symptoms of Alzheimer’s or senile dementia in an elderly person are enormous problems with disorientation.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="ezoic-adpicker-ad" id="ezoic-pub-ad-placeholder-107"></span>The person that suffers from this disease…</p>
<h1 style="text-align: center;">NEWLY INVENTED SHOES WITH GPS TO TRACK ELDERLY FAMILY MEMBERS WITH ALZHEIMER’S AND PREVENT THEM FROM GETTING LOST!</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="https://healthylifeboxx.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Newly-Invented-Shoes-With-GPS-to-Track-Elderly-Family-Members-With-Alzheimers-and-Prevent-Them-From-Getting-Lost-653x393.jpg" alt="img"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">The initial symptoms of Alzheimer’s or senile dementia in an elderly person are enormous problems with disorientation.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span id="ezoic-pub-ad-placeholder-107" class="ezoic-adpicker-ad"></span>The person that suffers from this disease is progressively losing the skill to orient themselves whether it’s time or spatial orientation. They will start feeling lost even in their house. These people feel very disordered and uncomfortable wherever they are. They can enter a state of constant anxiety which is hard to stop.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Often, the state of confusion can lead our loved ones to walk away from their home and don’t even realize it.</p>
<p><img src="https://healthylifeboxx.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/1-10.jpg"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">A Japanese company was looking for a solution to this problem and they’ve created a GPS device that can be added to the shoes of the elderly person. Every time that the person puts on their shoes and leaves the home without telling anyone, the GPS will be able to track them down no matter how far they’ve reached.<span id="ezoic-pub-ad-placeholder-108" class="ezoic-adpicker-ad"></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Japanese people are not surprised or fascinated by this invention since we constantly hear of Japan’s advances in technology such as robots, robot dogs that look very real, artificial intelligence, and much more. With this invention, they’ve accomplished something that the whole world can benefit from.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Wish Hills company has derived a device which they hope can help the elderly people that suffer from Alzheimer’s or senile dementia to figure out how to get back home, in other words, have their family member find them.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Elderly people that suffer from these diseases do not use watches or smartphones and they become completely disoriented of space and time.<span id="ezoic-pub-ad-placeholder-109" class="ezoic-adpicker-ad"></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">However, the one thing that they cannot go outside without is their shoes. This Japanese company figured that out and they created the GPS devices which can be added to the shoes for an easy location.</p>
<p><img src="https://healthylifeboxx.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/2-7.jpg"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">A notification is sent to a smartphone from this GPS device to a close relative that will be able to locate the person with the disease using a map. The map can be viewed either on a smartphone or a computer.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Once the elderly person moves away 165ft (50 m), 328 ft (100m), or 1640 ft (500 m) outside of his house, the GPS device will send the notification. This will help locate his exact location earlier than it could be.<span id="ezoic-pub-ad-placeholder-110" class="ezoic-adpicker-ad"></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Currently, these GPS shoes are sold only in Japan and they are not cheap. They sell for about $300 per pair of shoes.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">However, this device would not benefit only Japan with almost 25% of its population being over 65. The entire world could benefit from something like this.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that 47.5 million people in the world have senile dementia. Each year, there are new cases of this disease in 7.7 million people. This kind of data is troubling and other countries might get involved in using these useful devices.</p>
<p style="text-align: center;">Sources: <span> </span><a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://www.wtvideo.com/video/21583/newly-invented-shoes-with-gps-to-track-elderly-family-members-with-alzheimer-s-and-prevent-them-from-getting-lost?fbclid=IwAR016t-LliHrH5lZAdAs68ynZ6eHcOU1ASiGpZQFYVfowK3tjvEE0zGzwf8" target="_blank">www.wtvideo.com</a></p> WHAT IS DARK MATTER?tag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-01-09:6363372:Topic:34890632020-01-09T23:45:39.279ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<h1 style="text-align: center;">WHAT IS DARK MATTER?</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>When scientists studied the rotation of galaxies, they were surprised to find that the stars on the outer edges of the galaxy were spinning much faster than the traditionally understood laws of gravity would allow. If gravity was the only force keeping everything together, at those speeds the stars should be flung out into the universe! But clearly, they’re not. So, there must be some mysterious,…</span></p>
<h1 style="text-align: center;">WHAT IS DARK MATTER?</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>When scientists studied the rotation of galaxies, they were surprised to find that the stars on the outer edges of the galaxy were spinning much faster than the traditionally understood laws of gravity would allow. If gravity was the only force keeping everything together, at those speeds the stars should be flung out into the universe! But clearly, they’re not. So, there must be some mysterious, invisible force at work holding everything together. Because it’s so hard to detect, it was given the name “dark matter.”</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span class="font-size-3">Early observations</span></strong></p>
<p><img src="https://blog.assets.triviagenius.com/2020/01/shutterstock_750659479.jpg" alt="The milky way "/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>While dark matter research has escalated in the modern era, it was first hypothesized by an astrophysicist named </span><span> </span><a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Fritz-Zwicky" target="_blank">Fritz Zwicky</a><span> in the 1930s. He was studying a group of galaxies called the Coma Cluster. By measuring the light that they emitted, he could estimate the mass of each galaxy. If his estimations about mass were accurate, and therefore the gravity that each galaxy can produce, the speeds at which they were hurtling through the universe should have been impossible.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>The galaxies would have needed at least 400 times the estimated mass in order to have enough gravity to stay together. He knew there was something else at work but didn’t have the means to research further.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span class="font-size-3">Further research</span></strong></p>
<p><img src="https://blog.assets.triviagenius.com/2019/12/13-2-NASA.jpg" alt="Space view of M31: Andromeda, the nearest galaxy to our own"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>Although Zwicky had noticed something incredible, dark matter was mostly forgotten until the 1970s. That’s when an astronomist named </span><a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://www.space.com/vera-rubin.html" target="_blank">Vera Rubin</a><span> noticed something similar to Zwicky, but this time in much greater detail. Instead of viewing galaxies as a single point of light, she was looking at individual systems within the galaxy, specifically our neighbor Andromeda.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: right;"><span>She knew that the closer something was to a massive object, the more gravitational pull it would feel. So, using the traditional knowledge of gravity, she hypothesized that the stars at the center of the galaxy would move faster than those farther away. She was wrong. The stars on the outside of the galaxy were spinning at the same speed as those in the center, and they were spinning so fast that they should have flown apart. There wasn’t enough mass to hold the galaxy together. Something, and a lot of it, was missing.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span class="font-size-3">MACHOs vs. WIMPs</span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>No, it’s not high school all over again. Since there was a lot of “stuff” providing mass to these impossibly rotating galaxies, scientists had to come up with a name for the invisible objects. There were </span><span> </span><a rel="nofollow noopener" href="http://www.astronomy.com/news/2018/09/what-is-dark-matter" target="_blank">two potential explanations</a><span> that could have caused this phenomenon:</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>MACHOs – Massive Compact Halo Objects</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>WIMPs – Weakly Interacting Massive Particles.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>The problem with dark matter is that it’s dark. Scientists can’t see it. MACHOs are very large objects that don’t reflect or produce light, such as planets, stars that haven’t gotten big enough to glow, or any other gigantic dimly-lit objects that could be out there. What if there were huge numbers of massive objects that we couldn’t see that provided the mass necessary for the galaxy to stay together? The problem with the MACHO theory is that their gravity would be so intense that it would cause light to bend, which could be observed. That’s how black holes, a form of MACHO, were discovered. Since there aren’t enough MACHOs to be found, scientists were pushed towards WIMPs.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>WIMPs are tiny, possibly subatomic particles that contain some mass. Massive swarms of WIMPs — and by massive they mean enough to fill about 84% of the entire universe — could generate the combined mass necessary to keep the galaxies together. The problem with this theory is that we can’t find them. If they’re everywhere, they should be detectable even in our solar system.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span class="font-size-3">Neutralinos</span></strong></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>After mostly settling on the idea of WIMPs and lacking any concrete proof as of yet, scientists invented a </span><a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://www.symmetrymagazine.org/article/march-2009/neutralino" target="_blank">hypothetical particle</a><span> that could solve the problem. They named the imaginary (so far) particles neutralinos.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>Neutralinos are based off of another subatomic particle that scientists have already observed called <a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-a-neutrino/" target="_blank">neutrinos</a>. Neutrinos are similar to the electron of an atom but carry no charge. They were a contender for dark matter, but they don’t have enough mass. Neutralinos are the imaginary, heavier relative of the neutrino. Scientists are working very hard to find the pesky and elusive neutralino and prove their existence.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong><span class="font-size-3">None of the above</span></strong></p>
<p><img src="https://blog.assets.triviagenius.com/2019/12/13-4-NASA.jpg" alt="Space view of the M33: Triangulum galaxy in spiral shape"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>Since everything related to dark matter is mostly theoretical, scientists always have the option to select D: none of the above. Some scientists believe that instead of a new invisible particle explaining everything, what if our understanding of gravity is incomplete or even wrong? Rubin herself even admitted to being at least partially in this camp.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>A <a rel="nofollow noopener" href="https://phys.org/news/2016-11-theory-gravity-dark.html" target="_blank">new theory of gravity</a> (sorry, Newton) was introduced by theoretical physicist Erik Verlinde in 2010. In his theory, he states that gravity is not a fundamental force that affects all objects equally but, rather, an “emergent phenomenon” that can change and fluctuate based on the environment much like temperature. This could explain how galaxies move the way that they do.</span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span>Of course, as with anything in science, there are always <a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2018/03/06/only-dark-matter-and-not-modified-gravity-can-explain-the-universe/#5256a5bc31bd">disputes</a>. Many scientists completely reject the idea of modified gravity and are sticking with the theory of dark matter. It seems debate will have to continue for the foreseeable future.</span></p> DNA Is Code But Who Coded It?tag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-01-09:6363372:Topic:34890612020-01-09T23:42:42.791ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<h1 style="text-align: center;">DNA Is Code But Who Coded It?</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><em>Is the software that runs life the result of accumulated copying errors? Or does it require a programmer?</em></p>
<div class="separator"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-s0-G4HmONDU/XQy5UKac0GI/AAAAAAAAXBE/UVvqNPOtlmE66bD1YWUFlMQng_Rxh5sSQCLcBGAs/s1600/DNA.jpg"><img border="0" class="align-center" height="342" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-s0-G4HmONDU/XQy5UKac0GI/AAAAAAAAXBE/UVvqNPOtlmE66bD1YWUFlMQng_Rxh5sSQCLcBGAs/s640/DNA.jpg" width="640"></img></a></div>
<p style="text-align: center;"><br></br><em>This episode of Science Uprising examines how Microsoft founder Bill…</em></p>
<h1 style="text-align: center;">DNA Is Code But Who Coded It?</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><em>Is the software that runs life the result of accumulated copying errors? Or does it require a programmer?</em></p>
<div class="separator"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-s0-G4HmONDU/XQy5UKac0GI/AAAAAAAAXBE/UVvqNPOtlmE66bD1YWUFlMQng_Rxh5sSQCLcBGAs/s1600/DNA.jpg"><img border="0" height="342" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-s0-G4HmONDU/XQy5UKac0GI/AAAAAAAAXBE/UVvqNPOtlmE66bD1YWUFlMQng_Rxh5sSQCLcBGAs/s640/DNA.jpg" width="640" class="align-center"/></a></div>
<p style="text-align: center;"><br/><em>This episode of Science Uprising examines how Microsoft founder Bill Gates, geneticist and entrepreneur Craig Venter, and even evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins all acknowledge that DNA is like software.</em><br/><br/><em>As <u><a href="https://evolutionnews.org/2019/06/new-science-uprising-episode-programming-without-a-programmer/">Stephen Meyer</a></u> says here, we know from having lived in and observed the world that "information always arises from an intelligent source." Simply applying that knowledge to the biological information in DNA seems to command an inference to intelligent design.</em><br/><br/><em>"If our DNA code is more complex than any man-made software, where did it come from and how was that software created?</em><br/><br/><em>People featured in this episode include Stephen Meyer, PhD, Director of the Center for Science and Culture at Discovery Institute and author of Signature in the Cell: DNA and the Evidence for Intelligent Design; and Douglas Axe, Maxwell Visiting Professor of Molecular Biology at Biola University and author of Undeniable.</em></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><em><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/qxhuxg3WRfg?wmode=opaque" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe>
</em></p> Scientists Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed By Our Own Wordstag:templeilluminatus.ning.com,2020-01-08:6363372:Topic:34886962020-01-08T03:41:19.608ZErnie Hopkinshttps://templeilluminatus.ning.com/profile/ErnieHopkins
<h1 style="text-align: center;">Scientists Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed By Our Own Words</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_3b9c40d23df14abebbb107142d3350fc~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_740,h_416,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/1606ca_3b9c40d23df14abebbb107142d3350fc~mv2.webp"></img></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Russian Scientists Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed by just our Words and other outside Frequencies</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>THE HUMAN DNA IS A…</span></span></p>
<h1 style="text-align: center;">Scientists Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed By Our Own Words</h1>
<p style="text-align: center;"><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_3b9c40d23df14abebbb107142d3350fc~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_740,h_416,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/1606ca_3b9c40d23df14abebbb107142d3350fc~mv2.webp"/></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Russian Scientists Prove DNA Can Be Reprogrammed by just our Words and other outside Frequencies</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>THE HUMAN DNA IS A BIOLOGICAL INTERNET and can be reprogrammed.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Russian scientific research explains the human supernatural phenomena such as clairvoyance, intuition, spontaneous and remote acts of healing, self healing, affirmation techniques, unusual light/auras around people (namely spiritual masters), mind’s influence on weather patterns and much more. In addition, there is evidence for a whole new type of medicine in which DNA can be influenced and reprogrammed by words and frequencies WITHOUT cutting out and replacing single genes.</span></span></p>
<p><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_690793e341fc48268dadb8567b327de4~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_360,h_189,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/1606ca_690793e341fc48268dadb8567b327de4~mv2.webp" class="align-center"/></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Only 10% of our DNA is being used for building proteins. It is this subset of DNA that is of interest to western researchers and is being examined and categorized. The other 90% are considered “junk DNA.” The Russian researchers, however, convinced that nature was not dumb, joined linguists and geneticists in a venture to explore those 90% of “junk DNA.” Their results, findings and conclusions are simply revolutionary! According to them, our DNA is not only responsible for the construction of our body but also serves as data storage and in communication. The Russian linguists found that the genetic code, especially in the apparently useless 90%, follows the same rules as all our human languages. To this end they compared the rules of syntax (the way in which words are put together to form phrases and sentences), semantics (the study of meaning in language forms) and the basic rules of grammar. They found that the alkalines of our DNA follow a regular grammar and do have set rules just like our languages. So human languages did not appear coincidentally but are a reflection of our inherent DNA.</span></span></p>
<p><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_a8806858560e454c83fd49de06f9328b~mv2.png/v1/fill/w_360,h_360,al_c,lg_1,q_90/1606ca_a8806858560e454c83fd49de06f9328b~mv2.webp" class="align-center"/></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>The Russian biophysicist and molecular biologist Pjotr Garjajev and his colleagues also explored the vibrational behavior of the DNA. The bottom line was: “Living chromosomes function just like solitonic/holographic computers using the endogenous DNA laser radiation.” This means that they managed for example to modulate certain frequency patterns onto a laser ray and with it influenced the DNA frequency and thus the genetic information itself. Since the basic structure of DNA-alkaline pairs and of language (as explained earlier) are of the same structure, no DNA decoding is necessary.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>One can simply use words and sentences of the human language! This, too, was experimentally proven! Living DNA substance (in living tissue, not in vitro) will always react to language-modulated laser rays and even to radio waves, if the proper frequencies are being used.</span></span></p>
<p><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_43fe0ec3314f452c805b04ca3ec81617~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_360,h_202,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/1606ca_43fe0ec3314f452c805b04ca3ec81617~mv2.webp" class="align-center"/></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>This finally and scientifically explains why affirmations, autogenous training, hypnosis, Mediation, Prayer and other forms of Focus, can have such strong effects on humans and their bodies. It is entirely normal and natural for our DNA to react to language. While western researchers cut single genes from the DNA strands and insert them elsewhere, the Russians enthusiastically worked on devices that can influence the cellular metabolism through suitable modulated radio and light frequencies and thus repair genetic defects.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Garjajev’s research group succeeded in proving that with this method chromosomes damaged by x-rays for example can be repaired. They even captured information patterns of a particular DNA and transmitted it onto another, thus reprogramming cells to another genome. So they successfully transformed, for example, frog embryos to salamander embryos simply by transmitting the DNA information patterns! </span></span></p>
<p style="text-align: center;"><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span>Esoteric and spiritual teachers have known for ages that our body is programmable by language, words and thought. This has now been scientifically proven and explained. Of course the frequency has to be correct. And this is why not everybody is equally successful or can do it with always the same strength. The individual person must work on the inner processes and maturity in order to establish a conscious communication with the DNA. The Russian researchers work on a method that is not dependent on these factors but will ALWAYS work, provided one uses the correct frequency.</span></span></p>
<p><span class="post-title__text blog-post-title-font blog-post-title-color"><span><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_9a1f9a33cbc84327b17a4adb28d29fbd~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_360,h_315,al_c,q_90,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01/1606ca_9a1f9a33cbc84327b17a4adb28d29fbd~mv2.webp" class="align-center"/></span></span></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;">In nature, hyper communication has been successfully applied for millions of years. The organized flow of life in insect states proves this dramatically. Modern man knows it only on a much more subtle level as “intuition.” But we, too, can regain full use of it. An example from Nature: When a queen ant is spatially separated from her colony, building still continues fervently and according to plan. If the queen is killed, however, all work in the colony stops. No ant knows what to do. Apparently the queen sends the “building plans” also from far away via the group consciousness of her subjects. She can be as far away as she wants, as long as she is alive. In man hyper communication is most often encountered when one suddenly gains access to information that is outside one’s knowledge base. Such hyper communication is then experienced as inspiration or intuition. The Italian composer Giuseppe Tartini for instance dreamt one night that a devil sat at his bedside playing the violin. The next morning Tartini was able to note down the piece exactly from memory, he called it the Devil’s Trill Sonata.</p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e"><img src="https://static.wixstatic.com/media/1606ca_b5c3c408778943f4a0ca88284d3f1f05~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_360,h_528,al_c,lg_1,q_90/1606ca_b5c3c408778943f4a0ca88284d3f1f05~mv2.webp" class="align-center"/></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;"><span>In the book “Vernetzte Intelligenz” (Networked Intelligence), Grazyna Gosar and Franz Bludorf explain these connections precisely and clearly. The authors also quote sources presuming that in earlier times humanity had been, just like the animals, very strongly connected to the group consciousness and acted as a group. To develop and experience individuality we humans however had to forget hyper communication almost completely. Now that we are fairly stable in our individual consciousness, we can create a new form of group consciousness, namely one, in which we attain access to all information via our DNA without being forced or remotely controlled about what to do with that information. We now know that just as on the internet our DNA can feed its proper data into the network, can call up data from the network and can establish contact with other participants in the network. Remote healing, telepathy or “remote sensing” about the state of relatives etc.. can thus be explained. Some animals know also from afar when their owners plan to return home. That can be freshly interpreted and explained via the concepts of group consciousness and hyper communication. Any collective consciousness cannot be sensibly used over any period of time without a distinctive individuality. Otherwise we would revert to a primitive herd instinct that is easily manipulated.</span></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;"><span>Hyper communication in the new millennium means something quite different: Researchers think that if humans with full individuality would regain group consciousness, they would have a god-like power to create, alter and shape things on Earth!</span></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;"><span>More and more clairvoyant children are being born. Something in those children is striving more and more towards the group consciousness of the new kind, and it will no longer be suppressed.</span></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;"><span>When a great number of people get together through prayer or meditation, all focusing on the same outcome, we can change the world. The concept of us changing our own DNA, through our words and vibrations, is now a Know FACT. We are getting an Upgrade.</span></p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;">All information is taken from the book <em>“</em><a rel="nofollow" href="https://www.amazon.com/Vernetzte-Intelligenz-G-Fosar/dp/3930243237/188-4879177-4081608?ie=UTF8&camp=1789&creative=9325&linkCode=ur2&tag=spir02-20" target="_top" class="_2qJYG blog-link-hashtag-color _2IYtJ"><em><u class="sDZYg">Vernetzte Intelligenz</u></em></a><em>”</em><span> </span>von Grazyna Fosar und Franz Bludorf, ISBN 3930243237, summarized and commented by Baerbel. The book is unfortunately only available in German so far.</p>
<p class="XzvDs _208Ie _1dH_e blog-post-text-font blog-post-text-color _2QAo- _25MYV _3ZX8L _1dH_e" style="text-align: center;">Read full version<span> </span><a rel="nofollow" href="https://wakeup-world.com/2011/07/12/scientist-prove-dna-can-be-reprogrammed-by-words-frequencies/" target="_top" class="_2qJYG blog-link-hashtag-color _2IYtJ"><u class="sDZYg">https://wakeup-world.com/2011/07/12/scientist-prove-dna-can-be-reprogrammed-by-words-frequencies</u></a></p>